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1094. 


PREFACE, 


Within  the  whole  range  of  human  endeavor  there 
has  been  no  more  brilHant  accomplishment  than  that 
which  has,  in  the  course  of  scientific  evolution,  given 
to  the  world  the  beautiful  and  marvelous  science  of 
photography,  and  in  a  form  so  simple  that  the  stu- 
dents of  the  art,  with  the  exercise  of  a  little  pa- 
tience, application  and  ordinary  intelligence,  can 
more  than  share  the  laurels  which  in  all  ages  have 
graced  the  brows  of  those  illustrious  masters  of 
brush  and  palette,  whose  towering  genius  has  trans- 
mitted to  the  civilization  of  our  day  an  enduring 
record  of  every  emotion  of  the  human  heart. 

With  the  fullest  measure  of  recognition  for  the 
inestimable  boon  which  the  artists  of  the  past  have 
conferred  upon  our  race,  the  fact  can  no  longer  be 
ignored  that  the  art  which  has  crowned  them  with 
a  halo  of  enduring  glory  has  been  supplanted  by 
another  ART  AND  SCIENCE  COMBINED,  and 
one  which  is  not  only  a  science  in  itself,  but  an  in- 
dispensable auxiliary  to  every  other  science,  art, 
trade  and  profession.  THIS  CANNOT  BE  SAID 
OF  ANY  OTHER  SCIENCE. 

Not  only  is  photography  a  ranking  profession 
which  invites  the  best  scientific  talent  within  its 
fold,  both  as  a  consideration  of  advantage  in  the 
battle  of  life,  in  the  sense  of  emolument  and  pro- 
fessional distinction,  but  it  offers  to  the  amateur  of 
artistic  taste  a  field  of  scientific  research,  coupled 
with  heahhful  and  delightful  recreation,  which  the 
nature  of  no  other  profession  can  possibly  provide; 

The  rapid  evolution  within  the  last  few  years 


2 


PRKFACK. 


in  the  manufacture  of  photographic  apparatus  has 
placed  it  within  the  power  of  every  one  to  acquire 
this  most  interesting  and  fascinating  art. 

With  the  advent  of  the  hand  camera  all  obstacles 
to  the  pursuit  of  photography  as  a  pastime  have  been 
removed ;  for  the  hand  camera  is  a  portable  instru- 
ment of  simple  construction  and  for  its  successful 
operation  requires  only  an  intelligent  comprehension 
and  faithful  compliance  with  the  instructions  given 
in  this  work. 

There  is  no  profession  which  ofifers  such  oppor- 
tunities as  photography  ;  first,  because  the  avenues 
for  its  application  are  many-fold,  and  then  again 
its  simplicity,  with  reasonable  diligence,  insures  rapid 
progress  from  the  embryonic  stage  of  the  amateur 
to  the  highest  plane  of  perfection  attained  by  the 
full-fledged  operator  and  expert.  The  professions 
and  many  lines  of  commercial  business  in  which 
photography  has  become  a  necessity  and  the  sciences 
to  which  it  is  now  an  indispensable  aid  and  adjunct 
are  too  numerous  to  mention  here;  but  a  few  cita- 
tions may  tend  to  impress  my  readers  with  the  im- 
portance of  this  science  par  excellence. 

In  the  practice  of  law  it  is  a  leading  factor  in  the 
presentation  of  a  certain  character  of  evidence.  In 
every  department  of  engineering  it  is  employed  to 
record  the  progress  of  the  work.  In  engraving  and 
printing  it  has  become  a  prime  requisite.  In  the 
service  of  the  police  it  is  the  mute  agent  which  re- 
stores the  missing  to  loving  friends,  and  it  brings 
the  malefactor  to  the  bar  of  justice.  In  every 
branch  of  commerce,  on  land  and  sea,  the  speechless 
camera  heralds  the  steady  progress  of  industrial 
development.  It  makes  all  the  peoples  of  the  earth 
familiar  with  the  lives  and  habits  of  each  other. 
It  carries  to  the  Icelander  the  warm  scenes  of  the 
tropics,  with  their  sunny  skies  and  luxuriant  flora, 


PREFACE. 


3 


and  to  the  simple  children  of  the  Amazon  it  portrays 
the  rugged,  rock-ribbed  shores  of  Labrador  and  the 
vast  fields  of  ice  and  monster  bergs,  which  rear  their 
crystal  peaks  high  into  the  dreary  silence  of  the 
Arctic  circle,  while  to  the  astronomer  and  to  the 
microscopist  it  is  his  chief  dependence  for  accurate 
registration. 

This  volume  has  been  written  in  the  interests  of 
the  ambitious  amateur,  and  in  it  the  writer  has  en- 
deavored to  impart  such  instruction  as  will  enable 
the  novice  to  avoid  the  pitfalls  which  beset  the  path 
of  the  beginner,  and  to  make  an  encouraging  start 
on  the  road  to  success. 

The  endeavor  has  been  made  to  give  especially 
clear  instructions  on  those  points  where  the  begin- 
ner is  most  likely  to  err.  No  amount  of  reading  will 
enable  the  amateur  to  succeed,  unless  it  be  followed 
up  by  careful  practical  work.  Successful  photog- 
raphers gain  their  chief  knowledge  by  practical  ex- 
perience. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  begs  to  impress  upon  the 
amateur's  mind  the  imperative  necessity  for  con- 
stant, earnest,  watchful  attention  to  all  details.  He 
has  done  all  in  his  power  to  make  photography  sim- 
ple and  popular;  the  result  must  remain  with  the 
amateur. 


CONTKNTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Page 

Apparatus  required    7-8-9 

CHAPTER  IT. 

Hand  Cameras  . . . . ;   10 

Magazine  Cameras    11 

Folding  Focusing  Cameras   12-13 

Fixed  Focus  Box  Cameras   13-14 

Kodaks    14 

Remarks  on  Hand  Cameras   15-16 

CHAPTER  III. 

Viewing  Cameras   17-18-19 

Features  of  Cameras   19 

The  Swing  Back   19 

The  Rising  and  Falling  Front   20 

The  Reversible  Back   20-21 

The  Rack  and  Pinion   21 

The  View  Finder   21 

The  Ground  Glass  Focusing  Screen    21-22 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Lenses   23 

Single  Lenses    23-24 

Rapid  Rectilinear  Lenses   24-25 

Anastigmatic  Lenses   26 

Wlide  Angle  Lenses   26-27 

The  Portrait  Lenses   27-28 

The  Telephoto  Lenses  \   28-29 

The  Fixed  Focus  Lenses   29-30 

Diaphragms  or  Stops   30-31-32-33-34 

Uses  of  Stops   34-35 

CHAPTER  V. 

Shutters    36-37 

Portrait  Shutters    38-39 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Plate  Holder   89-40 

The  Film  Holder   40 


4 


CONTENTS.  5 

Page 

The  Roll  Holder   40-41 

The  Tripod   ^   41-42 

The  Focusing  Cloth   42 

The  Carrying  Case   42 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Developing  and  Printing  Outfit   43 

The  Ruby  Lamp..   43-44-45 

Developing  Trays    45-46 

Toning  Trays   46-47 

'Scales   *   47 

Graduated  Glass  Measures   47 

The  Printing  Frame.   48 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Dry  Plates    49-50-51-52-53 

Cut  or  Sheet  Films   53-54 

Film  Cartridges    54-55 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Loading  the  Film  Camera   56-57 

Loading  the  Plate  Holder   57-58-59 

Focusing    59-60 

CHAPTER  X. 
Landscape  Photography,  Lighting  and  Cam- 
position    61-62-63 

Exposing    63-64-65-66 

Architectural  subjects    66-67 

Use  of  the  Swing  Back   67-68 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Portrait  Photography,  Home  Portraiture....  69-70-71-72 

Home  Portraiture  Illustrations   72-73-74-75-76 

Outdoor  Portraiture    77-78-79 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Photographing  Interior,  Lighting  and  Com- 
position   80-81-82 

Exposing    82-83 

Approximate  Time  Needed  for  Exposures   83-84 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Flashlight  Photography    85-86-87 

Preparation  for  the  Flashlight   87-88 

Taking  the  Picture   88 

The  Powder   88 

Flashlight  Table   88 

Flashlight  Portraits    89 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Flashlight  Groups   .^r.-   89 

The  Background   89 

When  Using  Flash  Cartridges   89-90 

When  Using  Flash  Sheets   90 

In  General   90-91 

Secondary  Uses  of  the  Flashlight   91-92-93-94 

Warning !    94 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Snapshot  and  Instantaneous  Photography   95-96 

Photographing  Moving  Objects   96-97-98-99 

CHAPTEH  XV. 
Development  and  Completion  of  the  Negative: 
Equipment  and  Arrangement  of  the  Dark 

Room    99-100-101 

The  Choice  of  a  Developer   101-102-103 

Agents    103-104 

How  to  Mix  the  Developer   104-105 

How  to  Develop  a  Negative   105-106-107-108-109 

How  to  Correct  Over  and  Under  Exposure....  109-110-111 

How  to  Intensify  a  Negative   111-112 

How  to  Reduce  a  Negative   112 

Drying  Negatives   112-113 

Varnishing  Negatives    113-114 

Retouching  Negatives    114-115 

Storing  Negatives    115 

How  to  Develop  Film  Cartridges   116  to  121 

Useful  Formulae  for  Developing  and  Fixing 

Negatives    122-123-124-125-126 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Printing,  Toning,  Mounting  and  Finishing. 

Miscellaneous  Papers    127-128-129 

Printing   129-130-131 

Toning   131-132-133-134 

Directions  for  Toning  with  the  Combined  Bath.  134-135-136 
Toning  by  the  Separate  Toning  and  Fixing 

Method    136-137-138 

Printing  on  Developing  Paper   138-139 

Exposure  of  Developing  Paper   139 

Development  of  Developing  Paper   139-140 

Failures  and  Their  Causes   140-141 

Making  Blue  Prints   141 

Making  Sepia  Prints   141 

Mounting    142 

Glossy  Prints    143 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  APPARATUS  REQUIRED. 

Cameras  adapted  for  the  amateur's  use  are  di- 
vided into  two  classes :  Hand  cameras  and  view- 
ing cameras.  These  classes  are  again  sub- 
divided into  many  styles  and  varieties  of  instru- 
ments. Before  it  is  practicable  to  enter  intelli- 
gently into  a  practical  photographic  training  the 
amateur  should  provide  himself  with  the  neces- 
sary apparatus  and  he  should,  therefore,  select 
one  or  the  other  of  these  two  classes  of  instru- 
ments. This  selection  of  an  instrument  should 
invariably  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
work  which  the  embryo  photographer  has  in  con- 
templation, i.  e.,  whether  his  object  is  to  provide 
himself  with  agreeable  diversion  and  recreation 
or  with  a  scientific  art  which  may  be  employed 
as  a  profession  to  insure  permanent  occupation 
and  revenue. 

Upon  the  selection  of  the  first  instrument 
much  depends,  and  while  advising  the  novice  in 
this  respect  certain  considerations  should  be 
borne  in  mind  as  tending  to  his  ultimate  success 
and  these  are  his  personality,  tastes,  environment 
and  financial  ability.  Yet  one  rule  can  safely  be 
laid  down.  If  the  camera  is  to  be  used  by  the 
traveler  or  by  anyone  not  having  access  to  a 
dark  room,  a  film  camera  should  be  used.  An 
exclusively  plate  camera  is  suitable  for  gallery 
work  and  viewing. 

For  the  amateur's  use  it  is  well  to  have  an  in- 
strument that  will  use  film  as  well  as  plates. 

Films  in  light-proof  rolls  weigh  only  one-twen- 

7 


tieth  as  much  as  glass  plates  and  the  necessary 
plate  holders ;  they  are  non-breakable,  are  as  easy 
to  develop  as  plates  and  in  rapidity  and  quality 
equal  the  best  plates  made. 

In  every  kind  of  amateur  photographic  work, 
where  it  is  not  desired  to  make  a  negative  larger 
than  5x7,  transparent  film  is  rapidly  becoming 
more  popular  and  its  use  is  increasing  daily.  The 
reasons  are  obvious.  Film  is  a  thin,  light,  roll- 
able  and  non-breakable  substance.  Plates  are 
heavy,  fragile  glass.  To  the  tourist,  where  the 
transportation  problem  is  to  be  faced,  the  use  of 
film  frequently  means  success  versus  failure. 
Films  and  plates  are,  nevertheless,  more  nearly 
alike  than  those  not  familiar  with  the  subject 
would  imagine.  Indeed,  they  are  identical,  ex- 
cept in  the  support  upon  which  the  sensitive  ma- 
terial (emulsion)  is  coated. 

When  this  emulsion  is  coated  on  glass  we  have 
''plates."  When  coated  on  a  thin,  flexible  sup- 
port it  is  called  ''film." 

Neither  the  glass  nor  this  flexible,  transparent 
material  does  more  than  furnish  a  support  for  the 
emulsion  which  is  to  take  the  picture.  When 
exposed  in  the  camera,  the  results  are  Identical, 
and  when  the  pictures  are  made  they  are  indis- 
tinguishable. 

Whatever  style  of  instrument  the  amateur  may 
select  he  will  require  the  following  articles  to 
complete  his  working  apparatus : 

Camera,  complete  with  Plate  Holder,  Lens  and 
Shutter  and  a  Developing  and  Printing  Outfit, 
consisting  of  Developing  and  Toning  Trays, 
Graduated  Measuring  Glass,  Printing  Frame, 
Ruby  Lamp,  and  if  he  should  select  the  Viewing 
Camera,  the  above  list  must  be  augmented  by  the 
addition  of  a  Tripod  and  Focusing  Cloth. 


9 


Chemicals  for  making  the  developing  and  ton- 
ing solutions  and  paper  and  dry  plates  will  also 
be  required,  particulars  concerning  which  will  be 
treated  elsewhere  in  this  work.  The  articles 
mentioned  in  the  above  list  may  be  purchased 
separately  or  they  may  be  bought  in  the  form  of 
a  complete  equipment.  In  addition  there  are 
many  other  pieces  of  apparatus,  such  as  washing 
appliances,  drying  racks,  plate  lifters;  but  they 
are  not  absolutely  essential,  and  their  purchase 
may  be  deferred  until  the  beginner  has  achieved 
some  progress  and  feels  justified  in  making  the 
additional  outlay.  The  cost  of  photographic 
apparatus  varies  considerably,  according  to  qual- 
ity, but  as  the  cost  of  the  plates  and  papers  used 
in  both  cameras  of  good  and  inferior  quality  is 
the  same,  it  is  more  economical  in  the  end  for  the 
beginner  to  provide  himself  with  the  best  appar- 
atus that  he  can  afiford. 


CHAPTER  II. 


HAND  CAMERAS. 

As  indicated  by  its  name,  a  ''hand''  camera  is 
one  that  is  intended  primarily  to  be  used  when 
held  by  the  hands,  and,  therefore,  except  on  rare 
occasions,  such  an  instrument  does  not  require  a 
tripod  as  in  the  case  of  the  view  camera.  As  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  hold  a  camera  in  the 
hand  with  sufficient  steadiness  to  give  an  expo- 
sure of  more  than  about  the  tenth-part  of  a  sec- 
ond, all  hand  cameras  are  provided  with  a  shutter 
so  as  to  insure  quick  exposure. 

The  most  popular  size  for  a  hand  camera  is 
4x5,  though  instruments  of  this  kind  are  made 
to  take  much  smaller  pictures ;  some  users  are  not 
satisfied  with  so  small  a  picture  as  4x5,  and  pre- 
fer a  5x7  instrument  or  even  6^x8>^  or  8x10.  As 
a  rule,  a  4x5  or  5x7  camera  will  be  found  quite 
large  enough  for  all  ordinary  amateur  work.  It 
is  not  many  years  ago  that  a  hand  camera  was  re- 
garded as  a  toy  rather  than  as  an  instrument  for 
serious  picture-taking;  but  this  opinion  no  lon- 
ger exists,  owing  to  the  development  of  this  most 
useful  instrument  from  the  original  crude  box  to 
the  present  perfect  apparatus. 

A  hand  camera  is  even  better  than  its  proto- 
type on  a  tripod,  in  depicting  street  scenes.  In 
this  class  of  work  a  tripod  camera,  erected  in  a 
busy  thoroughfare,  would  not  only  obstruct  traf- 
fic, but  might  in  the  case  of  some  operators  be 
objected  to  as  rendering  them  disagreeably  con- 
spicuous. With  a  hand  camera  the  amateur  can 
stroll  about  when  and  where  he  will  and  take  a 

10 


II 


shot  here  and  a  shot  there,  without  attracting 
undue  notice. or  inconveniencing  anybody.  For 
cyclists,  too,  a  hand  camera  is  most  convenient, 
as  it  is  compact,  easily  carried,  and  can  be  used 
at  a  moment's  notice  during  a  ride. 

Hand  cameras  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  as  follows : 


FIG.  1.     MAGAZINE  CAMERA. 


Class  I.  Magazine  Cameras.  (See  Fig.  i.) — 
Those  in  which  a  number  of  plates  or  cut  films 
are  stored  in  a  chamber  or  magazine,  the  plates 
being  changed  after  each  exposure  by  means  of 
mechanism.  These  are  known  as  Magazine 
Cameras. 

In  this  class  the  plates  are  usually  placed  in 
metal  carriers,  and  as  a  rule  each  camera  holds 
twelve  plates.  Several  forms  of  hand  cameras 
are  made  on  this  principle.  This  class  of  camera 
possesses  the  advantage  of  enabling  the  user  to 
make  several  exposures  in  quick  succession,  and 
in  many  cases  this  feature  is  a  decided  conve- 
nience. 


12 


FIG.  2.     FOLDING  FOCUSING  CAMERA. 


Class  2.  Folding  Focusing  Cameras.  (See 
Fig.  2.) — Those  which  are  so  constructed  that 
when  not  in  use  are  self  contained  in  a  neat 
leather  covered  box,  but  when  desired,  by  press- 
ing a  concealed  button  one  side  of  the  box  is 
caused  to  be  lowered,  forming  a  bed  upon  which 
the  camera  front  containing  the  lens  and  shutter 
is  drawn  out,  rendering  the  instrument  adaptable 
for  instant  use.  This  style  is  known  as  the 
Folding  Hand  Camera.  They  are  provided 
with  ground  glass  screen,  tripod  sockets,  and 
focusing  scale  and  can  be  used  either  as  a  Hand 
Camera  or  upon  a  tripod  as  a  regular  Viewing 
Camera  In  them  can  be  used  either  dry-plates, 
sheet  films  or  films  in  rolls,  the  various  holders 
required  being  interchangeable. 


13 


A  camera  of  the  class  of  style  2,  with  plate 
holders,  is  specially  suitable  when  a  varied  range 
of  work  is  to  be  done,  as  plates  of  different 
speeds  can  be  carried  in  the  holders  and  a  fast  or 
slow  plate  can  thus  be  selected  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  subject  to  be  taken.  A  plentiful  sup- 
ply of  plates  is  not  always  a  blessing  to  the  hand 
camera  worker,  for  he  is  then  often  tempted  to 
spend  a  plate  on  a  subject  of  little  or  no  interest, 
whereas,  if  only  a  smaller  supply  of  plates  was 
available  greater  care  in  the  selection  of  the  view 
would  be  expended. 


FIG.  3.     FIXED  FOCUS  BOX  CAMERA. 


Class  3.  Fixed  Focus  Box  Cameras.  (See 
Fig"-  3-) — Those  known  as  Fixed  Focus  or  Box 
style,  in  which  the  plates  are  contained  in  plate 
holders. 

The  cameras  in  this  class  are  usually  provided 
with  space  for  three  double  plate  holders,  taking 
six  plates.  In  some  instruments  there  is  space 
for  carrying  all  three  holders  in  the  body  of  the 


14 

camera  while  in  others  there  is  only  room  for  one 
holder,  the  other  two  being  carried  in  the  pocket. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 


FIG.  4.  NO.  3  FOLDING  POCKET        FIG.  5.     FOLDING  POCKET 
KODAK    WITH    B.   &    L.  KODAK. 
AUTOMATIC  SHUTTER. 


Class  4.  Kodaks.  (See  Figs.  4  and  5.) — Cam- 
eras in  which  flexible  films  in  rolls  are  used  in- 
stead of  glass  plates,  the  film  being  wound  on 
spools  or  rollers.  The  action  of  winding  up  the 
exposed  portion  of  the  film  unwinds  a  fresh  por- 
tion ready  for  the  next  exposure. 

The  cameras  in  class  4  appeal  perhaps  most 
strongly  to  the  tourist  and  holiday-maker  as  they 
enable  material  for  a  large  number  of  exposures 
to  be  carried  with  very  little  weight.  There  are 
some  most  excellent  instruments  of  this  kind  on 
the  market,  which  are  well  worth  attention. 
Many  styles  are  made  in  such  compact  form  as 
to  permit  of  their  being  carried  in  any  ordinary 
coat  pocket.  These  are  known  as  Folding  Pocket 
Kodaks. 


15 


With  a  focusing  camera  the  operator  is  en- 
abled to  compose  or  arrange  his  view  on  the 
ground-glass  focusing  screen;  but  in  a  strictly 
hand  camera  this  process  is  performed  by  means 
of  a  little  appliance  termed  a  view  finder. 

All  hand  cameras  using  rectangular  shaped 
plates  should  be  provided  with  either  two  view 
findersorareversible  finder, to  enable  the  operator 
to  compose  both  horizontal  pictures  and  vertical 
pictures.  Many  hand  cameras  are  of  the  *'fixed- 
focus''  type.  This  means  that  everything  beyond 
a  certain  distance  (usually  about  7  to  9  feet)  from 
the  camera  is  in  correct  focus  on  the  plate,  and 
for  the  majority  of  snap-shot  pictures  a  camera 
of  this  kind  will  do  all  that  is  required. 

If  the  amateur  wishes  to  go  in  for  portraits 
and  figure  studies,  however,  he  should  obtain  a 
camera  with  a  focusing  arrangement  so  that 
nearer  subjects  can  be  successfully  taken.  Ap- 
paratus of  this  kind  is  described  under  class  2. 
This  focusing  can  be  performed  by  examining 
the  picture  on  a  focusing  screen  and  then  racking 
the  camera  in  or  out  until  it  appears  perfectly 
sharp,  or  by  judging  or  measuring  the  distance 
at  which  the  subject  is  placed  from  the  camera 
and  then  racking  the  camera  front  out  until  it  is 
set  for  that  distance,  as  indicated  on  a  small  grad- 
uated scale  termed  the  focusing  scale. 

With  portraits  and  figure  studies  the  focusing 
adjustment  is  specially  required  so  as  to  enable 
the  figures  to  be  taken  of  sufficient  size. 

On  the  cheaper  kinds  of  hand  cameras  single 
lenses  are  usually  fitted,  and,  for  landscape  work 
such  lenses  are  suitable,  but  one  with  a  rapid 
rectilinear  lens  is  to  be  preferred,  if  the  extra 
cost  can  be  afforded. 


i6 

The  shutters  supplied  with  hand  cameras  are 
extremely  varied  in  design.  The  shutter  should 
be  both  set  and  released  from  the  outside  of  the 
camera,  and  the  latter  operation  should  be  per- 
formed without  the  necessity  for  undue  move- 
ment or  pressure.  It  should  be  capable  of  being 
adjusted  for  various  speeds,  and  should  have  an 
indicator  to  show  the  various  speeds  at  which 
it  works.  The  range  of  adjustment  should  be 
from  about  one-tenth  of  a  second  to  not  less  than 
one-fiftieth,  and  the  shutter  should  also  be  ca- 
pable of  giving  time  exposures  if  necessary. 
When  it  is  desired  to  give  a  time  exposure  with 
a  hand  camera,  it  is  usual  to  rest  the  instrument 
on  a  convenient  fence  or  post,  or  else  on  a  tripod. 
A  further  point  with  regard  to  the  shutter  is 
that  it  should  not  uncover  the  plate  when  being 
set.  For  ordinary  snap-shot  work  a  shutter  speed 
of  about  one-twenty-fifth  of  a  second  is  generally 
sufficient.  The  higher  the  speed  of  the  shutter, 
the  greater  the  danger  of  under-exposure. 

As  far  as  possible,  all  the  movements  should 
be  accessible  from  the  outside  of  the  camera  and 
the  various  working  parts  should  be  easily  acces- 
sible for  cleaning,  adjustment,  and  repair.  A 
numerical  indicator  should  be  connected  to  the 
plate-changing  mechanism,  in  the  case  of  Maga- 
zine Cameras,  to  show  how  many  plates  have 
been  exposed,  and  it  should  be  possible  to  remove 
the  exposed  plates,  at  any  time  without  interfer- 
ing with  those  which  may  still  be  unexposed. 

It  is  now  almost  a  universal  practice  among 
Hand  Camera  makers  to  furnish  their  apparatus' 
complete  with  lens,  shutter  and  plate  holder,  thus 
saving  the  prospective  purchaser  the  trouble  of 
selecting  each  item  separately. 


CHAPTER  III. 


VIEWING  CAMERAS— FEATURES  OF 
CAMERAS. 

Size  of  the  Outfit. — Camera  manufacturers 
have  adopted  a  series  of  standard  sizes  for  their 
instruments.    Very  large  cameras  may  be  left 


^  FIG.  6. 

out  of  the  question,  as  unsuited  to  the  general 
requirements  of  amateur  workers,  and  the  fol- 
lowing sizes  may  be  considered  as  those  from 
which  a  selection  should  be  made.  The  figures 
given  are  the  dimensions  of  the  largest  picture 
which  each  camera  is  capable  of  taking: 
5x7-in.,  5x8-in.,  6>^x8j^-in.,  8xio-in. 

17 


i8 

Of  the  foregoing  sizes  there  are  two  the  use  of 
which  largely  preponderates.  These  are  5x7  and 
6}^x8y2'  If  the  reader  wishes  to  keep  both  his 
initial  and  working  expenses  as  low  as  possible, 
he  should  content  himself  with  the  smaller  of 
these  two  sizes.  When  he  has  gained  some  ex- 
perience and  is  fairly  proficient,  he  may  perhaps 
feel  tempted  to  employ  a  6>4x8>l  camera.  All 
things  considered,  however,  a  5x7  instrument  is 
the  best  size  for  the  beginner  to  commence  with. 
By  a  simple  contrivance  known  as  a  ''kit"  smaller 
pictures  can  be  taken  with  a  5x7  or  larger  cam- 
era, so  that  if  the  reader  wishes  to  experiment  in 
a  small  way  at  the  start,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter 
for  him  to  do  so. 

The  Points  of  a  Good  Viewing  Camera. — A 
knowledge  of  the  features  which  a  good  camera 
should  possess  will  be  of  service  to  the  reader 
when  selecting  an  instrument.  Since  the  camera 
has  to  be  carried  about  from  place  to  place  it 
should  be  as  light  as  possible,  and  it  should  fold 
up  into  a  small  compass.  These  qualities,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  obtained  at  the  sacrifice  of 
rigidity,  for  it  is  upon  the  firmness  of  the  camera 
and  its  support,  that  the  sharpness  of  the  result- 
ant picture  largely  depends.  The  front  of  the 
camera  should  be  provided  with  a  rising  and 
falling  adjustment,  so  that  the  lens  may  be 
moved  above  or  below  the  level  of  the  center 
of  the  plate,  though  it  should  be  exactly  opposite 
this  point  when  in  its  normal  position. 

The  bellows  should  be  made  of  leather  or  bel- 
lows cloth,  and  m^y  be  either  parallel  or  tapering 
in  shape.  The  latter  kind  is  known  as  a  *'coxi- 
icar*  bellows,  and  is  generally  preferred  on  ac- 
count of  the  saving  in  weight  which  their  use 
allows.    (See  Fig.  6.)    When  a  conical  bellows  is 


19 


fitted,  the  purchaser  should  satisfy  himself  that 
if  the  back  of  the  camera  is  moved  close  up  to 
the  front,  as  is  the  case  when  using  a  short-focus 
lens,  no  part  of  the  picture  on  the  plate  is  cut  off. 

It  is  essential  for  good  work  that  the  camera 
should  be  provided  with  what  is  termed  a 
''swing-back,''  and  the  amateur  will  also  find  it  of 
great  advantage  to  have  a  camera  with  a  re- 
versing back,  that  is  a  back  which  will  fit  in  both 
a  horizontal  and  a  vertical  position.  As  will  be 
seen  from  the  foregoing  list  of  standard  sizes  the 
plates  are  made  oblong  in  shape,  and  the  re- 
versing back  enables  the  plate  to  be  used  either 
vertically  or  horizontally,  as  required. 

With  a  6>2x8>^  camera,  sufficient  adjustment 
should  be  provided  to  enable  an  extension  of  not 
less  than  i6  or  17  inches  to  be  made.  The  wood- 
work of  the  camera  should  be  of  well-seasoned 
mahogany. 

Features  of  Cameras. — In  the  foregoing  pages 
the  terms :  swing-back,  view-finder,  etc.,  have 
been  used  and  the  reader  will  derive  a  full  com- 
prehension of  a  definition  of  the  meaning  of  these 
terms  from  the  following  detailed  explanation : 
The  Swing  Back.-— ^In  making  pictures  of 
buildings  or  of  ahy  subject 
other  than  purely  landscape 
ones,  the  sensitive  plate  should 
be  in  a  perfectly  perpendicu- 
lar plane  with  the  subject  in 
order  to  obtain  good  results. 
The  purpose  of  a  swing-back 
FIG.  7.  is  to  keep  the  place  always  ab- 

solutely perpendicular.  (See  Fig.  7.)  To  include 
the  top  of  a  tall  building  or  church  spire,  or  se- 
cure more  of  a  subject  than  can  be  obtained  with 
the  camera  in  its  normal  position,  it  is  often  nec- 


20 


essary  to  tilt  it,  and  under  such  conditions,  with 
a  rigid  back,  the  lines  of  the  resulting  photo- 
graph will  converge  more  or  less  at  the  top,  as 
the  plate  will  be  at  an  angle  with  the  subject.  If, 
however,  the  back  of  the  camera  is  made  to 
move  or  ''swing''  independently,  then,  even 
though  the  camera  is  not  level,  the  sensitive  plate 
can  be  placed  parallel  with  the  subject  and 
straight  lines  secured^ — or,  in  photographic  par- 
lance, there  would  be  no  distortion,  but  a  perfect 
rectilinear  effect.  A  swing-back  is  not  absolutely 
essential  for  hand  work  and  in  fact  is  not  used  to 
so  great  an  extent  with  4x5  cameras  as  with' 
larger  sizes.  Nevertheless  it  will  be  found  very 
convenient  for  tripod  exposures,  and  indispen- 
sable under  conditions  noted  above. 

The  Rising  and  Falling  Front. — The  purpose 
of  a  rising  and  falling  front  is  to  shift  the  lens 


Fig.  8.   Rising  and  Falling     Fig.  9.    Double  Sliding 
Front.  Front. 

above  or  below  the  center  of  the  sensitive  plate — 
its  normal  position — in  order  to  include  more  or 
less  foreground.  (See  Figs.  8-9.)  It  will  also 
be  found  an  aid  in  securing  the  upper  part  of  a 
building  or  similar  subject,  which  could  not  be 
covered  by  the  lens  if  at  the  center. 

The  Reversible  Back. — A  reversible  back  cam- 
era, to  the  casual  observer,  does  not  differ  in 
appearance  from  the  ordinary  type,  but  it  has  de- 
cided advantages.   The  back  frame  which  carries 


21 


the  sensitive  plate  can  be  placed  either  upright  or 
horizontal  at  will — without  changing  position  of 
the  camera — a  decided  advantage,  especially 
when  making  tripod  exposure.  Fig.  lo  shows  the 
camera  back  with  a  plate  in  a  horizontal  posi- 


FiG.  10.  Fig.  11. 


tion;  a  portion  of  the  subject  being  cut  oflf.  By- 
reversing  the  back  the  plate  will  be  vertical,  as 
in  Fig.  II — the  whole  subject  included,  and  often 
a  ,more  artistic  effect  obtained. 

Rack  and  Pinion. — This  is  a  metal  roller  de- 
vice working  in  a  milled  track  used  on  the  bed  for 
moving  the  front  of  camera,  to  which  lens  and 
shutters  are  attached,  backward  or  forward,  until 
the  proper  focus  is  obtained. 

In  the  cheaper  apparatus  this  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  lever  or  hook ;  but  this  method  is 
inconvenient  as  compared  with  the  use  of  the 
rack. 

The  View  Finder  is  in  reality  similar  to  a  min- 
iature camera,  consisting  of  a  lens  and  reflecting 
mirrors.  Its  purpose  is  to  give  an  exact  repro- 
duction, in  miniature  size,  of  the  view  as  it  will 
appear  on  the  negative.  Finders  are  made  in 
various  forms,  adaptable  to  use  upon  either  fold- 
ing or  non-folding  cameras,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  Ground  Glass  or  "Focusing''  Screen. — At 
the  back  of  a  tripod  camera  there  is  a  frame  in 


22 


which  is  fixed  a  sheet  of  ground  glass.  This 
glass  is  termed  the  ''focusing  screen/'  On  this 
the  picture  to  be  taken  is  arranged  and  focused. 
When  the  camera  is  first  set  up  and  pointed  at 
the  object  to  be  taken,  the  picture  will  probably 
appear  very  indistinct  and  fuzzy.  The  amateur 
may  be  surprised  also  to  find  that  the  picture 
appears  upside  down  on  the  glass ;  but  this  is  the 
natural  result  of  the  action  of  the  lens,  and  is  a 
peculiarity  to  which  he  will  soon  get  quite  accus- 
tomed. The  front  of  the  camera  is  then  moved 
in  or  out  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion  move- 
ment until  the  picture  appears  sharp  on  the 
ground  glass. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


LENSES:    DIAPHRAGMS  OR  STOPS. 

Lenses.-^ — The  next  member  of  a  complete  pho- 
tographic apparatus  to  receive  attention  is  the 
lens.  Lenses  of  many  names,  mystifying  in  the 
extreme  to  the  novice,  are  advertised ;  but  these 
may  be  divided  into  five  classes,  four  of  which 
are  in  general  use.  The  fifth  (the  Tele-Photo) 
is  at  present  but  little  understood.  The  four  in 
general  use  are :  First,  the  Single  Lens  (single 
combination)  ;  second,  the  Rapid  Rectilinear 
Lens  (Double  combination)  ;  third,  the  Wide 
Angle  Lens  (Double  combination)  ;  fourth,  the 
Portrait  Lens  (Double  combination). 

Single  Lenses  are  made  in  two 
forms,  meniscus  (see  Figs.  12-13) 
and  piano  convex.  The  menis- 
cus form  is  always  employed  ex- 
cept in  the  cheapest  class  of  cam- 
eras. These  lenses  are  always 
mounted  behind  the  diaphragm 
Fig.  12.  Fig.  13.  which  controls  the  amount  of 
Plano-    Menis-  li^ht  to  be  admitted  through  the 

CONVEX.       cus.  j^^^^ 

A  Single  Combination  lens,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, contains  but  one  ''combination,''  a  com- 
bination being  two  or  more  glass  elements 
cemented  together  with  Canada  balsam. 
The  chief  advantage  which  the  single  lens 
offers  to  amateur  workers  is  that  it  is  con- 
siderably lower  in  price  than  the  other  types 

23 


24 


and  is  used  in  cameras  making  pictures  4x5 
inches  or  less  in  size.  For  landscape  photography 
and  for  figure  studies,  a  good  single  lens  will 
prove  very  satisfactory.  To  the  amateur,  how- 
ever, who  wishes  to  do  as  great  a  variety  of 
work  as  possible  with  one  lens,  the  single  type 
has  a  great  disadvantage  in  that  it  is  entirely  un- 
suited  for  taking  any  subject  where  straight  lines 
have  to  be  included,  such  as  in  photographs  of 
buildings,  copying  drawings,  etc. ;  for  in  such 
cases  it  distorts  the  straight  lines  into  a  more  or 
less  curved  form,  hence  this  type  of  lens  is  not 
suitable  for  making  pictures  larger  than  4x5 
inches. 


Fig.  14. 


A  Rapid  Rectilinear  or  Double  Achromatic 
Lens  is  composed  of  two  single  achromatic 
lens  combinations  mounted  one  in  each  end  of 
the  lens  tube,  placed  face  to  face.    (See  Fig.  14.) 

When  a  stop  is  placed  in  front  of  a  single  lens 
the  image  produced  is  ''barrel  shaped,''  and 
when  the  stop  is  placed  back  of  the  lens  the  im- 
age is  ''pin-cushion''  shape.  The  stop  in  the 
rectilinear  lens  being  placed  between  the  two 


25 

combinations  is,  of  course,  in  front  of  the  back, 
and  back  of  the  front  combinations.  It  is  very 
evident,  then,  that  the  distortion  of  the  one 
would  be  counteracted  by  the  distortion  of  the 
other,  and  hence  the  result — a  straight  line.  This 
defect  of  the  one  being  counteracted  or  corrected 
by  the  defect  of  the  other  permits  of  a  large  aper- 
ture being  used  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
single  lens,  hence  the  name  Rapid  Rectilinear. 

Undoub  t  e  d  1  y 
the  best  kind  of 
lens  for  all-round 
work  is  the  rapid 
rectilinear,  as  the 
pictures  taken 
with  a  lens  of  this 
type  are  absolute- 
ly free  from  dis- 
torted or  curved 
lines. 

A  further  advantage  of  this  lens  over  the  single 
lens  is  that  it  is  much  quicker  in  working.  A 
rapid  rectilinear  lens  may  be  used  with  good  re- 
sults for  any  of  the  following  classes  of  work : 

Landscape,  architectural  subjects,  copying, 
portraits,  groups,  and  figure  studies.  It  is  also 
very  suitable  for  instantaneous  and  snap-shot 
pictures. 

Rapid  rectilinear  lenses  are  made  in  many 
grades  and  of  many  types,  and  are  marketed 
under  various  names,  such  as  Rectilinears,  Anas- 
tigmats,  Symmetricals,  etc.,  the  double  Anastig- 
mats  being  the  highest  grade. 

The  Stigmatic  and  Anastigmatic  Lenses  (See 
I'ig"-  15)^  of  which  there  are  a  number  of  different 
series  manufactured,  are  a  new  form  of  lens  of 
comparatively  recent  invention.    They  are  cer- 


FiG.  15. 


26 


tainly  of  the  highest  plane  to  which  the  photo- 
graphic optician  has  obtained.  They  are  made  of 
the  new  Jena  glass  and  the  various  series  are 
composed  of  from  two  to  eight  lenses. 

They  are  of  convertible  form  and  they  may  be 
used  with  either  front  or  back  combinations  sep- 
arately. By  so  doing  three  different  focal  lengths 
are  obtained  and  the  possessor  of  these  lenses 
has  in  reality  three  lenses  combined  in  one. 


FJQ.  6. 

Fig.  16.  Fig.  17. 


The  Wide  Angle  Lens  is  very  similar  in  form 
and  the  same  in  principle  as  that  of  the  Rapid 
Rectilinear;  the  chief  difference  being  that  the 
lens  combinations  are  mounted  closer  together 
and  the  curvature  greater  in  the  same  focal 
length  of  lens. 

Fig.  i6  represents  one  of  the  most  common 
forms  of  wide  angle  lenses.  It  will  readily  be 
seen  by  the  construction  of  the  lens-mount  that  it 
will  permit  of  a  very  wide  angle  of  view  to  pass 
through,  to  the  plate,  while  in  the  Rapid  Recti- 


i 


27 

linear  (Fig.  17)  the  angle  would  be  cut  off  by  the 
length  of  the  barrel. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  because  one  is 
the  possessor  of  a  wide  angle  lens  he  will  be  able 
to  obtain  the  angle  desired  on  any  size  of  plate  he 
may  wish  to  use.  A  wide  angle  lens  is  so  called 
because  its  angular  capacity  is  large  in  propor- 
tion to  its  focal  length.  But  if  we  have  a  lens  of, 
say,  six  inches  focus,  with  an  angular  capacity  of 
100  degrees  and  a  4x5  plate  be  used,  it  will  read- 
ily be  seen  that  we  do  not  utilize  the  full  capacity 
of  the  lens,  and  hence  #nly  a  comparatively  nar-  * 


Fig.  18. 


row  angle  of  view  is  obtained.  In  Fig.  18  the 
lines  ab  and  cd  indicate  the  angular  capacity  of 
the  lens.  A  4x5  plate  being  used,  the  base  line, 
or  5  inch  side,  H  K  represents  the  angle  obtained, 
which  is  less  than  half  the  capacity  of  the  lens. 

A  wide  angle  lens  is  intended  for  use  in  con- 
fined positions,  and  for  photographing  high 
buildings  in  narrow  thoroughfares,  for  interiors 
of  small  rooms,  and  for  similar  work,  it  is  almost 
indispensable.    A  disadvantage  attaches  to  its 


38 


use,  however,  in  the  fact  that  the  perspective  of 
the  view  so  taken  appears  exaggerated  and  dis- 
pleasing to  the  eye;  but  since  there  is  no  means 
of  taking  many  subjects  except  by  the  aid  of  such 
a  lens,  this  alteration  in  the  appearance  of  the 
perspective  must  be  accepted. 

The  Portrait  Lens.— A  Portrait  Lens  maybe 
considered  one  of  the  crowning'successes  of  the 
photographic  optician.  Although  invented  a 
number  of  years  ago,  no  photographer's  outfit  of 
the  present  day  would  hp  considered  complete 
without  one.  They  are  specially  designed  for 
very  short  exposure,  and  are  from  four  to  six 
times  as  quick  working  as  the  ordinary  rapid 
rectilinear  lens.  They  cover  a  very  small  plate  in 
proportion  to  their  focal  length,  and  conse- 
quently possess  a  narrow  angle.  The  image  pro- 
duced is  very  soft  and  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  the 
most  artistic  results  in  portraiture  are  produced 
with  them.  The  lenses  of  the  back  combination 
are  separated  by  an  air  space  which,  together 
with  their  extremely  large  apertures,  produce  the 
fine  soft  effect. 

Lenses  of  this  type  are  intended  for  Portrait 
work  only  and  they  are  of  little  use  for  any  other 
class  of  work. 

The  Tele-Photo  is  a  distinct  type  of  lens  of 
which  a  brief  description  is  given  on  account 
of  its  distinction  from  the  other  lenses 
and  its  usefulness  in  the  production  of  long- 
distance views.  It  is  composed  of  two 
individual  combinations;  a  collective  or  positive 
combination  and  a  dispersive  or  negative  com- 
bination. The  office  of  the  collective  lens  is  to 
collect  as  many  as  possible  of  the  rays  of  light 
which  are  reflected  from  the  object  to  be  photo- 
graphed, and  to  focus  them  within  the  radius  of 


29 


the  dispersive  combination,  which  projects  an 
enlarged  image  upon  the  plate.  In  this  manner 
a  large  image  of  a  distinct  object  may  be  ob- 
tained with  a  comparatively  very  short  bellows 
draw.  They  are  very  useful  in  photographing 
distant  mountain  scenery,  vessels  far  out  at  sea 
and  various  animals  for  the  study  of  naturalists, 
pictures  of  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  ob- 
tain at  close  range. 


4 


Fig.  19. 

Fixed  Focus  Lens. — The  repeated  mention  of 
this  lens  in  catalogues  and  advertisements  has 
created  an  impression  that  it  is  some  distinct 
kind  of  lens,  with  the  extraordinary  power  of 
focusing  all  objects  near  and  far  in  one  plane. 
There  is  no  inherent  quality  in  any  lens  that 
makes  it  ''fixed  focus'' ;  it  is  such  when  it  is  im- 
movable and  that  is  all.  Any  lens  can,  therefore, 
be  made  ''fixed  focus''  but  the  extent  to  which 
it  will  focus  all  objects  in  one  plane  depends 
upon  its  length  of  focus  and  size  of  stop  or 
diaphragm  used,  and  upon  that  only. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  rays  of  light 
from  near  and  far  objects  do  not  focus  at  the 
same  point.  For  instance,  we  will  assume  that 
B,  in  Fig,  19,  is  the  point  at  which  objects  one 
hundred  feet  distant  will  focus  and  that  A  is 
where  objects  10  feet  distant  will  focus.  Now  the 
distance  between  A  and  B  will  vary  in  ratio  to 


30 

the  focal  length  of  the  lens.  In  a  lens  of  3  inches 
focus  it  is  ascertained  mathematically  to  be 
3-16  of  an  inch  and  in  one  of  12  inches  focus, 
inches.  Hence  if  using  a  3  inch  focus  lens 
the  sensitive  surface  is  placed  between  A  and 
B  the  object  at  100  feet  and  beyond  (all  objects 
beyond  100  feet  come  practically  within  one 
focus)  and  objects  10  feet  distant  will  none  of 
them  be  more  than  3-32  out  of  focus,  which,  with 
the  size  of  stop  ordinarily  used  for  snap  work, 
creates  so  slight  a  blurring  of  the  image  that  it 
cannot  be  detected.  Experience  has  shown  that 
the  limit  of  focus  for  a  lens  which  is  to  be  em- 
ployed for  snap  shot  work  with  the  focus  fixed 
is  under  5J4  inches;  in  other  words  thata3^x4>^ 
plate  is  about  the  largest  that  can  be  used  to 
advantage  under  such  circumstances.  It  is  prob- 
ably true  that  for  cameras  of  this  size  and  under, 
nothing  can  be  gained  by  having  the  focus  ad- 
justable and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  better  aver- 
age results  will  be  obtained  with  a  fixed  focus, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  there  is  no  adjustment 
that  will  allow  the  lens  to  be  put  out  of  focus 
by  a  mistake  in  measuring  distances. 

Diaphragms  or  Stops. — All  lenses  are  provided 
with  ''diaphragms''  or  ''stops,"  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  the  size  of  the  aperture  through 
which  light  can  pass.  There  are  three  kinds 
of  diaphragms  fitted  to  lenses,  viz. :  Waterhouse 
diaphragms,  Iris  diaphragms  and  rotary  or 
wheel  diaphragms.  A  Waterhouse  diaphragm 
is  a  small  piece  of  sheet  metal,  having  a  circular 
hole  made  in  the  center.  This  is  inserted  in  a 
slot  cut  in  the  brass  lens  mount  and  blocks  out 
all  the  light  except  that  which  passes  through 
the  hole.  A  set  of  these  is  provided,  having  dif- 
ferent sized  holes.  An  Iris  diaphragm  consists 
of  a  set  of  thin  plates  overlapping  one  another 


31 


and  fixed  inside  the  lens  mount.  These  are  so 
arranged  that  when  a  circular  ring  that  is  fitted 
to  the  outside  of  the  mount  is  rotated,  the  plates 
move  in  or  out  and  so  vary  the  size  of  the  open- 
in;^  in  the  center,  the  action  being  very  similar 
to  the  action  of  the  iris  of  the  human  eye.  A 
Rotary  diaphragm  takes  the  form  of  a  circular 
disc,  with  several  different  sized  holes  therein. 
This  is  pivoted  on  the  lens  mount,  and  as  it  is 
rotated  one  or  the  other  of  the  various  holes 
comes  opposite  the  center  of  the  lens  opening. 

The  two  former  kinds  of  diaphragms  are  those 
most  commonly  used,  and  for  general  conveni- 
ence the  Iris  pattern  is  greatly  preferred.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  being  in  one  with  the  lens 
mount,  so  that  it  cannot  be  mislaid  or  left  be- 
hind as  is  the  case  with  the  Waterhouse  type. 
An  Iris  diaphragm  is  a  little  more  expensive,  but 
its  extra  quality  justifies  the  investment.  Ro- 
tary diaphragms  are  often  used  for  hand  camera 
lenses. 

A  volume  might  be  written  on  the  subject  of 
stops,  but  a  few  lines  will  suffice  to  give  the 
amateur  an  idea  of  why  they  are  necessary, 
and  how  they  should  be  used. 

The  best  part  of  a  lens  is  its  center,  i.  e.,  those 
rays  of  light  which  pass  through  the  lens  at  or 
near  the  center  will  be  correctly  refracted  and 
will  therefore  give  the  image  clear  and  sharp  on 
the  ground  glass,  while  the  rays  which  pass 
through  the  outer  edges  of  the  lens  will  not  make 
such  a  clear  and  distinct  image.  It  can  thus  be 
seen  that  the  smaller  the  stop  opening  the 
sharper  the  picture,  because  the  outside  rays 
will  be  cut  off.  But  it  will  be  discovered  that 
with  a  small  diaphragm  or  stop  opening  the  light 


32 


is  to  a  great  extent  cut  down.  If  the  beginner 
has  a  camera  with  focusing  glass  it  will  be  well 
for  him  to  focus  on  some  object  on  the  ground 
glass,  using  the  largest  diaphragm  and  care- 
fully noting  the  lines  to  see  if  they  are  sharp. 
Then  let  him  put  a  smaller  stop  in  position,  not- 
ing the  increase  in  sharpness  and  the  decrease  in 
light.  The  better  the  lens  the  larger  the  stop 
opening  which  can  be  successfully  used,  and 
consequently  the  ''faster''  the  lens.  Suppose  one 
lens  of  8-inch  focus  is  employed  and  that  in  a 
given  light  a  clear,  sharp  picture  is  made  in  5 
seconds  with  a  stop  one  inch  in  diameter,  while 
with  another  lens  of  same  focal  length  a  stop 
only  one-half  inch  in  diameter  must  be  used 
in  order  to  get  a  sharp  picture.  How  would  they 
compare  in  speed?  IsTine  people  out  of  ten  will 
jump  at  conclusions  and  say  that  the  lens  with 
the  half-inch  opening  must  be  given  10  seconds. 
In  this  case  the  first  impression  is  not  correct. 
Four  times  the  time  or  20  seconds  must  be  given 
because  the  area  of  the  one-inch  stop  is  four 
times  that  of  the  half-inch  stop.  A  simple  little 
rule  can  be  deduced  from  this,  and  if  the  correct 
exposure  with  one  stop  is  known  the  correct  ex- 
posure for  the  others  can  readily  be  ascertained. 
The  time  variation  between  two  stops  is  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  their  diameters. 

With  most  single-lens  cameras  there  are  stop- 
openings  of  three  sizes,  the  largest,  for  ordinary 
snap  shots,  the  second  (which  has  about  2-3  the 
diameter  of  the  largest),  for  snap  shots  on  the 
water  and  in  tropical  or  semi-tropical  climates  or 
for  time  exposures  indoors,  and  the  smallest,  or- 
dinarily used  for  time  exposures  out  of  doors — 
never  for  snap  shots. 


33 


With  the  double  lenses  there  is  a  greater,  num- 
ber of  stop  openings  and  they  are  arranged  upon 
what  is  known  as  the  Uniform  System,  com- 
monly abbreviated  to  ''U.  S." 

Of  course  when  in  a  general  way  it  is  said  that 
the  speed  of  a  lens  depends  upon  the  diameter 
of  the  stop  opening  it  is  not  meant,  for  instance, 
that  a  Pocket  Kodak  stop  opening  must  be  as 
large  as  the  diaphragm  in  the  lens  of  an  8  x  lo 
camera  in  order  to  have  the  same  speed,  but  it 
must  be  as  large  in  proportion,  and  that  propor- 
tion is  based  upon  the  length  of  focus  (the  dis- 
tance between  lens  and  plate)  of  the  lens.  The 
proportionate  size  or  the  'Value''  of  the  stop 
opening  is  designated  by  /,  and  is  the  quotient 
obtained  by  dividing  the  focal  length  of  the  lens 
by  the  diameter  of  the  stop.  For  instance:  a 
lens  of  8-inch  focus  with  a  stop  one  inch  in 
diameter  gives  8->i=8.  Hence,  8  is  the  / 
value  of  the  stop  and  would  be  designated:  /8. 
Suppose  the  stop  is  %  inch  in  diameter,  then 

8--M=/32. 

For  convenience  the  Uniform  System  of  mark- 
ing stop  openings  has  been  adopted  by  nearly  all 
manufacturers  of  Iris  diaphragms  and  the  fol- 
lowing table  will  help  the  amateur  to  understand 
the  meaning  of  these  markings  by  giving  the  / 
value  for  each  one : 

U.S.    4  =  /  8 
U.S.    8  —  /II.3 
U.S.  i6  =  /i6 

U.  S.    32  =  /  22.6 

U.S.  64  =  /32 
U.S.  128  =  / 45.2 
The  convenience  of  the  U.  S.  system  is  at  once 
apparent  when  it  is  understood  that  each  higher 


34 


number  stands  for  an  opening  having  half  the 
area  of  the  preceding  opening.  Between  each 
number,  therefore,  the  time  is  doubled.  If  stop 
No.  i6  is  used  twice  is  given  or  if  No.  32  four 
times  the  time  of  the  table,  while  with  stop  No.  4 
only  one-half  the  time  of  the  table  would  be 
given. 

Ordinarily  the  appended  table  is  a  good  one  to 
follow  in  the  use  of  the  stops  with  a  rapid  rec- 
tilinear lens,  but  there  are  some  exceptions: 

No.  4. — For  instantaneous  exposures  in  slight- 
ly cloudy  weather  and  for  portraits.  Instan- 
taneous exposures  on  dark,  cloudy  days  should 
not  be  attempted. 

No.  8. — For  all  ordinary  instantaneous  expos- 
ures when  the  sun  shines. 

No.  16. — For  instantaneous  exposures  when 
the  sunlight  is  unusually  strong  and  there  are 
no  heavy  shadows ;  such  as  views  on  the  seashore 
or  on  the  water,  or  in  tropical  or  semi-tropical 
climates:  also  for  interior  time  exposures. 

Nos.  32  and  64. — For  interiors.  Never  for  in- 
stantaneous exposures. 

No.  128. — For  time  exposures  outdoors  in 
cloudy  weather.  Never  for  instantaneous  expos- 
ures. The  time  required  for  time  exposures  on 
cloudy  days  with  smallest  stop  will  range  from 
Yi  second  to  5  seconds,  according  to  the  light. 
The  smaller  the  stop  the  sharper  the  picture. 

If  the  smallest  stop  is  used  for  instantaneous 
exposures,  absolute  failure  will  result. 

The  No.  4  stop  is  not  to  be  used  when  absolute 
sharpness  is  desired,  as  the  opening  is  so  large 
that  few  lenses  will  have  a  good  ''depth  of  focus" 
with  it — 1.  e.,  only  the  objects  at  the  exact  dis- 


35 


tance  focused  will  be  sharp,  those  nearer  by  or 
farther  away  being  more  or  less  "out  of  focus." 

Sharpness  is  extremely  desirable  in  a  picture; 
but  what  is  called  ''roundness"  and  ''atmosphere" 
is  perhaps  fully  as  important.  What  is  meant 
by  these  rather  vague  terms  is  sometimes  puz- 
zling to  the  beginner  and  they  are,  perhaps,  best 
explained  as  referring  to  that  quality  in  a  pic- 
ture which  gives  the  proper  idea  of  both  distance 
and  perspective — that  quality  which  is  the  oppo- 
site of  the  silhouette;  which  makes  every  object 
appear  in  proper  relation  to  every  other  object 
and  gives  life  and  character  to  the  picture.  "At- 
mosphere" and  "roundness"  are  somewhat  lost  by 
using  too  small  a  stop.  The  largest  opening 
which  will  give  a  sharp  picture  should  therefore 
be  used. 


CHAPTER  V. 


SHUTTERS. 

If  the  reader  wishes  to  take  photographs  of 
moving  objects,  a  shutter  must  be  obtained.  For 
all  ordinary  work  requiring  exposures  of  ^  sec- 
ond and  upward,  such  an  article  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary. 


Fig.  20.  Fig.  21. 


The  shutter  is  usually  attached  to  the  lens, 
and  in  its  most  simple  form  may  consist  of  a 
piece  of  wood  or  metal,  in  which  an  opening  is 
cut,  and  which  slides  up  and  down  in  a  frame 
supported  by  the  lens.  As  the  opening  in  the 
slide  passes  in  front  of  the  lens,  the  exposure  is 
made,  the  duration  of  which  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  aperture  and  the  speed  at  which  the  slide 
is  moving.  In  most  shutters  of  this  type,  the 
motion  is  obtained  by  allowing  the  sliding  piece 
to  fall  by  its  own  weight  when  released,  though 
the  speed  thus  obtained  may  be  considerably  in- 

36 


37 


creased  by  using  an  extended  India  rubber  band 
to  exert  a  pull.  In  more  expensive  forms  of 
shutters,  such  as  the  Thornton-Pickard,  roller- 
blinds  are  used  with  excellent  results,  the  shutter 
being  set  by  simply  pulling  a  cord  and  the  re- 
lease being  made  by  squeezing  an  India  rubber 
bulb  attached  to  a  closed  tube,  this  action  re*- 
leasing  the  spring  mechanism  which  actuates 
the  blind.  The  characteristics  of  a  good  shutter 
are  as  follows : 

It  should  be  light  arrd  not  unwieldly  in  shape. 
It  should  work  quietly  and  without  imparting 
vibration  or  jar  to  the  camera.  It  should  be  ad- 
justable for  various  speeds  and  for  time  and  in- 
stantaneous exposures.  It  should  be  certain  in 
its  action  and  it  should  enable  the  operator  to  ef- 
fect the  release  without  taking  his  eyes  off  the 
object  to  be  photographed.  A  good,  though  not 
absolutely  essential  feature,  is  that  the  shutter 
should  be  capable  of  being  set  without  the  neces- 
sity of  covering  the  plate  during  the  operation. 
If  the  shutter  does  not  admit  of  this  being  done, 
the  difficulty  can  easily  be  overcome  by  setting 
the  shutter  before  drawing  the  slide  of  the  plate. 
When  photographing  children  or  animals,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  with  a  shutter  which 
works  as  noiselessly  as  possible. 

Excellent  forms  of  shutters  are  those  supplied 
with  Iris  diaphragm  and  which  are  provided 
with  the  mechanism  for  making  instantaneous 
time  and  bulb  exposures.  There  are  several 
forms  of  these  now  on  the  market  and  all  are 
provided  with  both  finger  and  pneumatic  bulb 
release,  and  work  automatically  for  instantane- 
ous exposures  from  i-ioo  to  one  second  or  over. 
Figs.  20  and  21  are  illustrations  of  most  popular 
forms. 


38 


Portrait  Shutters. — In  doing  portrait  work  in 
the  studio  with  the  special  portrait  apparatus  the 
lens  used  is  generally  a  regular  portrait  objective 
and  is  too  large  in  diameter  to  permit  of  its  being 
fitted  to  any  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  shutters 
which  are  applied  to  viewing  lenses. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  and  to  permit  of 
instantaneous  work  being  done  with  lenses  of 
this  type,  special  portrait  shutters,  known  as 
Lens  Board  Shutters  (see  Fig.  22)  have  been  de- 
vised.   These  are  designed  to  be  fitted  to  the 


Fig.  22. 


back  of  the  lens  board  of  the  camera,  directly  be- 
hind the  lens.  Because  of  their  large  size,  how- 
ever, they  are  adaptable  for  use  only  in  cameras 
having  large  lens  (front)  boards. 

Portrait  shutters  are  also  made  to  fit  over  the 
tube  of  the  lens  at  the  front  but  as  this  form  is 
cumbersome  their  use  is  generally  confined  to 
cases  where  the  photographer  possesses  a  cam- 
era with  too  small  a  lens-board  to  permit  the 
use  of  a  lens-board  shutter  and  a  lens  too  large 
in  diameter  to  be  fitted  with  a  diaphragm  shut- 
tor. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE    PLATE    HOLDER  —  THE  ROLL 
HOLDER— THE  TRIPOD— THE  FO- 
CUSING CLOTH— THE  CARRY- 
ING  CASE. 

The  Plate  Holder.  (See  Figs.  23-24.)— The 
plate  holder  holds  the  plate  for  exposure  and 
fits  the  camera-back  between  the  ground  glass 
screen  and  the  camera  body.  It  is  not  placed 
in  position  until  after  the  picture  has  been 
focused  on  the  ground-glass  screen.  Then 
when  the  plate  holder  is  inserted  and  the 
slide   drawn,   the   sensitive   side   of   the  plate 


Fig.  23.  Fia.  24. 

Adjustable  Plate  Holder, 
occupies  exactly  the  same  position  as  the 
ground-glass  screen.  Plate  holders  are  generally 
made  to  hold  two  plates  back  to  back,  with  a 
fixed  opaque-division  piece  of  sheet  metal  or 
cardboard  in  between.  This  prevents  the  light 
which  falls  on  one  plate  during  exposure  from 
injuring  the  plate  behind. 

39 


40 


When  an  exposure  has  been  made  on  one  of 
the  plates  the  holder  is  removed  from  the  cam- 
era, until  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  next  ex- 
posure. It  is  then  replaced  in  a  reversed  posi- 
tion, thus  enabling  the  second  plate  to  be  used. 

Most  cameras  as  sold  are  provided  with  one 
double  plate  holder,  but  it  is  advisable  to  pur- 
chase at  least  two  extra,  so  that  when  a  day's 
photographic  outing  is  made,  enough  plates  for 
six  pictures  can  be  taken.  If  three  holders  are 
bought,  they  should  be  numbered  consecutively 
on  both  sides — i  and  2,  3  and  4,  5  and  6,  so  that 
the  exposures  may  be  recorded  as  made  and  the 
plates  subsequently  identified  in  the  dark  room. 

The  Cut  Film  Holder. — This  holder  is  identical 
in  external  appearance  with  the  plate  holder. 
It,  however,  differs  somewhat  in  internal  con- 
struction. 

Cut  films  being  much  thinner  than  glass  plates 
and  being  flexible  the  inner  arrangement  of  the 
holder  for  them  is  made  to  suit  their  peculiari- 
ties. 

In  loading  holders  with  cut  films  and  in  ex- 
posing films  in  the  camera  the  directions  are 
exactly  like  those  given  for  dry  plates. 

The  Cartridge  Roll  Holder.  (See  Fig.  25.)— 
This  is  a  special  holder  in  which  is  used  film 
wound  upon  spools  and  known  as  film  cartridges. 
These  cartridges  are  light-proof  and  dust-proof 
and  can  be  loaded  into  the  roll  holder  and  taken 
from  same  in  broad  daylight,  thus  rendering  -ac- 
cess to  a  dark  room  unnecessary  for  these  opera- 
tions. The  cartridge  roll  holder  is  intended  for 
use  with  hand  cameras  and  when  applied  to  a 
plate  camera  is  interchangeable  with  the  plate 
holders  and  cut  film  holders  ordinarily  used  with 
the  apparatus. 


.41 


The  application  of  a  roll  holder  to  a  plate 
camera  converts  the  instrument  into  a  combina- 
tion plate  and  film  camera,  a  most  useful  and 
desirable  apparatus. 

The  Tripod.  (Fig.  26.) — In  choosing  a  tripod 
the  great  point  to  study  is  rigidity,  and  also 
worthy  of  consideration,  though  of  lesser  im- 
portance, is  the  question  of  compactness  and 
portability.    The  fewer  the  joints  in  a  tripod,  the 


Fig.  25. 

more  rigid  it  is  likely  to  be,  and  for  this  reason  a 
two-fold  is  likely  to  be  better  than  a  three-fold 
one,  though  the  latter  can  be  packed  into  a  more 
convenient  form  for  carrying.  The  tripod  is  pro- 
vided with  a  top  or  head,  of  either  triangular  or 
circular  shape,  and  to  this  head  the  baseboard  of 
the  camera  is  attached  by  means  of  a  thumb- 
screw. 

Of  all  the  pieces  in  the  amateur's  kit,  there  is 
not  one  which  is  so  liable  to  get  lost  or  left  be- 
hind as  this  tripod  screw,  and  therefore  it  should 


42 


be  attached  by  means  of  a  string  or  light  chain 
to  the  tripod  head.  The  tripod  head  should  be 
covered  with  felt  or  leather,  as  the  camera  can 
then  be  screwed  down  without  receiving 
scratches  or  other  damage. 


Focusing  Cloth. — A  focusing  cloth  will  be  re- 
quired to  shut  out  the  light  from  around  the 
ground  glass  screen  when  focusing,  to  enable  the 
operator  to  see  his  subject  on  the  glass  to  ad- 
vantage. A  focusing  cloth  may  be  of  gossamer, 
rubber  or  ladies  cloth  and  be  purchased  ready- 
made. 

Carrying  Case. — Having  collected  the  various 
pieces  of  his  outfit,  the  amateur  will  require  a 
case  to  carry  them.  For  ordinary  traveling,  a 
canvas  case  is  sufficient,  but  if  the  case  is  to  con- 
tain the  entire  apparatus,  it  should  be  provided 
with  a  broad  strap  and  grip  handle. 


Fig.  26. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  OUT- 

FIT. 


The  Ruby  Lamp. — As  will  be  explained  in  an- 
other chapter,  the  sensitive  plates  upon  which  the 
photographs  are  taken  must  not  be  allowed  to  re- 


FiG.  27. 


ceive  the  faintest  trace  of  white  light  or  daylight 
except  that  which  reaches  them  when  the  expos- 
ure is  made  in  the  camera.  They  are,  however, 
practically  unaffected  by  a  deep  ruby-colored 
light,  and,  therefore,  the  operation  of  opening  a 
packet  of  plates  to  fill  the  camera,  and  the  later 

43 


44 


operations  of  developing  and  fixing,  must  either 
be  carried  on  in  perfect  darkness  or  by  the  aid  of 
a  lamp  fitted  with  ruby-colored  glass.  An  al- 
ternative method,  when  the  above  operations  are 
performed  in  the  daytime,  is  to  cover  the  window 
of  the  room  used  for  this  purpose  with  a  ruby 
cloth  or  fabric,  but  as  this  will  be  referred  to 
again  in  the  chapter  on  development,  I  will  at 
present  only  consider  the  question  of  lamps.  The 
cheapest  form  of  ruby  lamp  has  a  metal  top  and 
bottom,  the  body  being  made  of  a  square  metal 
frame,  covered  with  ruby  cloth  or  fabric.  The 
top  and  bottom  portions  of  this  lamp  can  be  taken 
off,  and  the  body  folded  up  fiat,  so  that  the  whole 
thing  can  be  packed  in  a  shallow  cardboard  box. 
The  light  is  obtained  by  placing  inside  the  lamp 
a  small  night  lamp  or  the  end  of  a  candle.  This 
form  of  lamp  is  very  useful  for  changing  plates 
or  for  occasional  developing  when  traveling,  but 
it  is  hardly  substantial  enough  for  everyday 
work.  It  is  better  to  buy  a  lamp  with  a  good 
metal  body  and  fitted  with  a  burner  for  oil.  It 
should  be  capable  of  holding  a  fair  supply  of  oil 
and  the  device  for  raising  the  wick  should  be 
accessible  from  the  outside  of  the  lamp.  (See 
Figs.  27-28.) 

Although  the  color  of  the  glass  in  the  lamp 
may  be  red,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
the  light  which  passes  through  it  does  not  affect 
the  plate  to  some  degree.  In  order  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  light  is  actually  safe,  the  fol- 
lowing plan  may  be  adopted:  Place  a  plate  in 
the  plate  holder  in  the  usual  way.  Then  close 
the  holder  and  draw  the  slide  so  that  four-fifths 
of  the  plate  are  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  lamp. 
Leave  the  slide  in  this  position  for,  say,  two  min- 


45 


utes.  Then  push  the  slide  in  so  that  only  three- 
fifths  of  the  plate  are  exposed,  and  leave  for  an- 
other two  minutes.  Then  again  push  the  slide 
in  so  that  only  two-fifths  are  exposed,  and  leave 
for  four  minutes  this  time.  Then  push  the  slide 
so  that  it  leaves  only  one-fifth  of  the  plate  ex- 
posed, and  leave  this  open  for  another  ten  min- 
utes. Thus  one  portion  of  the  plate  has  not  been 
exposed  at  all,  the  next  has  had  two  minutes'  ex- 
posure, the  next  four  minutes,  the  next  eight 
minutes  and  the  last  eighteen  minutes.  The  plate 
should  then  be  developed  in  the  ordinary  way,  as 
explained  in  Chapter  on  Developing,  and  it  will 
be  readily  seen  by  comparison  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  exposed  part  how  far  the  light  has  af- 
fected the  remaining  portions  of  the  sensitive 
surface.  The  actual  time  that  a  plate  is  exposed 
to  the  light  of  the  lamp  during  an  ordinary  case 
of  development  is  not  above,  say,  two  minutes,  so 
that  if  this  exposure  to  the  lamp  produces  no  in- 
jurious effect  the  light  may  be  regarded  as  fairly 
safe.  The  process  of  developing  and  fixing  of 
course  takes  longer  than  two  minutes,  but  all 
careful  workers  make  a  point  of  keeping  the  plate 
carefully  screened  from  the  direct  rays  of  the 
lamp,  except  when  a  close  scrutiny  of  the  image 
is  necessary. 


Fig.  29. 


Developing  Trays. — The  smallest  number  of 
dishes  which  will  be  required  for  developing  the 


46 


negative  is  two,  one  for  the  developing  solution 
and  one  for  the  fixing  solution ;  but  an  extra  dish 
should  be  procured,  however,  as  in  some  in- 
stances an  alum  bath  is  required.  These  dishes 
are  made  in  various  materials,  such  as  porcelain, 
fibre  and  rubber.  It  does  not  matter  very  much 
which  of  these  materials  is  selected.  Fibre 
dishes  are,  perhaps,  as  cheap  as  any,  and  they 
are  also  very  light.  The  dishes  chosen  may  be 
purchased  stamped  with  the  letters  T,  D  and  F, 
which  mean:  Toning,  Fixing,  Developing. 
(See  Fig.  29.)  This  will  make  it  easy  to  always 
keep  the  same  dish  for  the  same  purpose — a  pre- 
caution which  should  invariably  be  adopted. 


Fig.  30. 


Toning  Trays. — The  dishes  employed  for  ton- 
ing should  be  deeper  than  those  used  for  devel- 
oping, as  it  is  usual  to  tone  a  number  of  prints 
together  in  the  same  dish,  and  there  should  be 
plenty  of  room  for  the  prints  to  be  always  kept 
on  the  move.  Perhaps  rubber  or  fibre  dishes  are 
the  best  for  this  purpose,  and  to  facilitate  manip- 
ulation of  the  prints  the  dishes  should  preferably 
be  a  size  or  two  larger  than  those  used  for  de- 


47 


velopment.  (See  Fig.  30.)  Two  dishes  will  be 
required,  one  for  fixing  and  one  for  toning.  In 
thus  stating  the  number  of  dishes  required  it  is 
assumed  that  the  amateur  will  be  able  to  obtain 
the  use  of  some  large  sized  domestic  dishes, 
which  are  very  useful  for  washing  plates  and 
papers.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  a  few  large  trays 
for  this  purpose  should  be  purchased. 

Scales.  (See  Fig.  31.)— For  the  purpose  of 
weighing  out  the  various  chemicals  employed  in 

mixing  solutions,  the 
amateur  will  require  a 
small  pair  of  scales. 
The  chief  point  to  be 
considered  is  that  the 
pan  in  which  the  sub- 
stance to  be  weighed 
is  placed  should  be 
made  of  glass.  Glass 
is  preferable  to  brass 
in  that  it  is  not  likely 
to  have  any  contami- 
nating effect  on  the 


Fig.  31. 


substance  placed  therein,  and 
also  it  is  much  easier  to  keep 
clean. 

Graduated  Glass  Measures. 

— These  are  required  for 
measuring  and  mixing  s'olu- 
tions,  and  two  of  different  ca- 
pacities should  be  obtained. 
Usually  a  two-ounce  meas- 
ure and  a  four-ounce  meas- 
ure are  all  that  will  be  re- 
quired. 


FlQ.  32. 


48 

Printing  Frame. — When  a  plate  has  been  ex- 
posed and  developed,  it  is  termed  a  negative, 
and  from  the  negative  thus  produced,  paper  pos- 
itives, or  ''prints,"  are  made  by  placing  the  sen- 
sitive surface  of  a  piece  of 
prepared  paper  in  contact 
with  the  negative  and  expos- 
ing it  to  daylight.  To  facil- 
itate this  operation  a  ''print- 
ing-frame'' is  employed, 
made  something  like  an  or- 
dinary picture  frame,  but 
with  a  removable  back.  The 
back  is  pressed  down  by 
springs,  and  thus  keeps  the 
paper  in  close  contact  with 
the  negative.  In  most  print- 
ing frames  the  back  is  made 
in  halves,  so  that  one-half 
can  be  raised  occasionally 
Fig.  33.  during    the    printing  pro- 

cess, to  ascertain  what 
progress  the  printing  is  making.  (See  Fig.  33.) 
Printing  frames  are  generally  made  of  some  hard- 
wood, and  that  portion  of  the  frame  whereon  the 
negative  rests  should  be  perfectly  flat,  otherwise 
the  pressure  of  the  springs  may  cause  the  glass 
to  fracture. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


DRY    PLATES  —  SHEET    FILMS  —  FILM 
CARTRIDGES. 

Dry  Plates  and  Celluloid  Films. — A  photo- 
graphic plate  depends  for  its  action  upon  the  fact 
that  the  salt  known  to  chemists  as  bromide  of 
silver,  when  associated  with  some  organic  mat- 
ter such  as  gelatine,  has  conferred  upon  it  by 
even  a  momentary  flash  of  light  the  property  of 
turning  to  metallic  silver  when  subjected  to 
the  action  of  certain  chemicals.  That  is  to  say, 
when  a  piece  of  glass,  coated  with  bromide  of 
silver  and  gelatine,  is  exposed  in  a  photographic 
camera,  all  those  portions  upon  which  the  light 
has  fallen  are,  in  some  subtle  manner,  which  no 
one  understands,  changed  in  nature,  so  that  when 
treated  with  a  chemical  solution,  called  the  "de- 
veloper,'* they  are  darkened,  while  those  parts 
which  have  not  been  affected  by  light  remain  in 
their  pristine  whiteness. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  here  that  red  light 
has  little  power  over  a  photographic  plate.  White 
light  is  composed  of  all  the  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow, mixed  in  certain  definite  proportions,  and 
also  of  a  certain  amount  of  light  which  is  in- 
visible— light  which  is  of  such  deep  red  color 
that  to  our  eyes  it  appears  simply  black,  and  the 
light  which  is  so  highly  violet,  as  it  were,  that  we 
cannot  see  it  at  all.  The  violet  rays  and  the  ultra 
violet  rays  have  the  greatest  effect  upon  the 
photographic  plate,  and  the  power  of  the  rays 
diminishes  as  you  get  farther  away  from  the 
violet  end  of  the  spectrum,  until — ^except  under 

49 


50 


certain  conditions,  which  will  be  explained  later 
on — you  come  to  the  yellow,  orange,  red  and  in- 
fra red,  where  the  effect  is  almost  nil.  A  photo- 
graphic plate  is  not  materially  affected  by  red 
light,  and  this  peculiarity  gives  the  photographer 
an  opportunity  of  conducting  all  those  operations 
which  would  otherwise  have  to  be  gone  through 
in  the  dark,  by  the  aid  of  a  light  with  which  he 
is  able  to  see  what  he  is  doing. 

The  photographer  should  decide  at  the  outset 
upon  one, brand  of  plates  and  stick  to  it  until 
he  has  mastered  the  initial  stages  of  his  art.  He 
should  not  blame  the  results  of  his  own  faults 
upon  the  plate-maker  and  try  his  luck  with  an- 
other brand,  for  that  leads  to  confusion. 

Each  different  kind  has  its  peculiarities,  which 
must  be  studied  to  be  understood,  and  this  un- 
derstanding will  never  be  arrived  at  by  changing 
from  one  brand  to  another  in  the  hope  of  find- 
ing one  upon  which  a  careless  photographer  will 
be  able  to  produce  a  good  negative.  The  no- 
madic photographer — and  most  amateurs  come 
under  this  head,  for,  in  the  practice  of  their  art, 
they  wander  about  the  country  in  search  of  the 
picturesque — should  decide  upon  a  popular  make 
of  plate  that  he  is  reasonably  sure  he  can  pro- 
cure in  any  out-of-the-way  town. 

When  the  photographic  student  sees  for  the 
first  time  a  certain  make  of  plates  advertised  un- 
der the  name  of  ''Orthochromatic,''  he  is  quite 
at  a  loss  to  understand  what  particular  peculiari- 
ties are  implied  by  this  curious  title.  Nor  will  he 
be  much  enlightened  if  he  be  told  that  the  alter- 
native name  for  precisely  the  same  thing  is  *'Iso- 
chromatic."  The  former  word  signifies  ''correct 
color,''  while  the  meaning  of  the  latter  is  "equal 
color,"  and  as  photography  up  to  the  present  is 


51 


quite  independent  of  color  of  any  description,  it 

being  unable  to  reproduce  any  of  the  various 
tints  and  shades  of  nature  by  a  direct  photo- 
graphic process — it  is  difficult  to  see  just  where 
the  application  of  these  words  comes  in. 

The  idea  that  these  adjectives  are  intended  to 
convey  when  applied  to  a  photographic  plate,  is 
that  it  is  capable  of  reproducing  colored  objects 
in  their  correct  tone-relation  to  one  another. 
Everybody  knows  who  has  had  a  photograph  ta- 
ken that  ordinary  photography  is  not  able  to  do 
this.  Not  only  does  it  translate  all  color  into 
sober  monochrome,  but  the  tints  which  it  chooses 
in  representing  any  given  hue  are  generally  of  a 
very  different  shade  from  that  which  we  would 
select  as  being  of  equivalent  light-value.  A  lady 
who  goes  to  the  photographer  to  have  her  por- 
trait taken,  in  a  bright  red  dress,  finds,  to  her 
dismay,  when  the  proofs  come  home,  that,  as  far 
as  that  garment  is  concerned,  she  appears  to  be 
in  deepest  mourning,  while  her  peacock-blue 
bonnet  is  represented  as  being  nearly  white. 

But  if  the  photographer  who  has  to  depict  so 
trying  a  subject  were  to  use  isochromatic  plates 
the  red  dress  would  appear  of  an  equivalent 
shade  of  gray  instead  of  black,  while  the  blue, 
instead  of  appearing  white  or  nearly  so,  would 
be  of  a  somewhat  lighter  shade  of  grey — in  fact, 
the  colors  would  be  reproduced  just  as  a  painter 
would  show  them  if  told  to  translate  the  subject 
into  black  and  white. 

This  result  is  brought  about  by  treating  the 
plates  in  the  course  of  their  manufacture  to  a 
staining  process  with  one  of  the  yellow  aniline 
dyes  which  gives  to  the  bromide  of  silver  emul- 
sion a  much  lighter  degree  of  sensitiveness  to 
yellow  and  red  light.    Still,  the  most  highly 


52 


color-sensitized  plates  are  far  more  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  what  are  generally  called  the 
actinic  rays — those  which  form  the  blue  and 
violet  portions  of  the  spectrum — and  before  such 
plates  can  be  made  to  yield  correctly-toned 
photographs,  this  super-activity  of  the  blue  and 
violet  rays  must  be  reduced  to  a  proportionate 
potential  by  filtering  out  a  great  number  of  them 
and  allowing  only  a  suitable  quantity  to  pass. 
A  piece  of  what  we  call  yellow  glass  only  ap- 
pears to  us  to  be  yellow  because  it  has  the  power 
of  stopping  all  the  rays  of  which  light  is  made 
up,  except  those  which  produce  the  effect  which 
we  describe  as  yellow,  and  from  these  rays,  which 
are  the  only  ones  to  reach  our  eyes,  we  get  the 
impression  that  the  piece  of  glass  is  yellow. 

Now,  if  a  piece  of  pale  yellow  glass,  or  stained 
gelatine  be  placed  in  the  lens  of  the  camera  in 
such  a  way  that  all  the  light  has  to  filter  through 
it,  a  large  proportion  of  the  blue  and  violet  light 
coming  from  the  objects  being  photographed 
will  be  absorbed,  and  a  very  much  smaller  quan- 
tity will  reach  the  photographic  plate,  while  the 
red  and  yellow  rays  will  pass  unobstructed. 
Then,  if  a  plate  be  used  which  has  been  rendered 
sensitive  to  the  yellow  rays  in  the  manner  al- 
ready mentioned,  a  photograph  will  be  produced 
in  which  the  various  colors  of  nature  will  be  rep- 
resented by  different  shades  of  grey  of  a  tone- 
value  which  will  appear  to  be  equivalent  to  the 
tone-values  of  the  original  colors. 

This  process  refutes  the  charge  that  photog- 
raphy cannot  produce  colors  in  their  equivalent 
shade  of  monochrome.  By  its  aid  all  branches  of 
photography  are  improved.  Landscapes  are  ren- 
dered in  a  far  more  life-like  and  natural  man- 
ner, for  the  bright  green  trees  do  not  appeal  in 


S3 


the  old  photography.  But  it  is  more  in  photo- 
graphing flowers  or  copying  paintings  that  the 
funereal  aspect  which  was  characteristic  of 
orthochromatic  process  appears  to  best  advan- 
tage ;  for  in  these  the  colors  are  of  a  more  lively 
nature  and  of  a  kind  to  aggravate  the  faults  of 
the  ordinary  photography. 

'  The  introduction  of  a  yellow  screen  into  the 
lens  prolongs  the  necessary  exposure  to  light 
to  about  twice  to  four  times  the  time  it  would 
otherwise  require,  because  it  filters  out  many  of 
the  more  active  rays.  This  is  one  thing  which 
is  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  using  the  process, 
and  the  other  is  that  the  plates,  being  far  more 
sensitive  to  red  light  than  those  of  the  ordinary 
kind,  very  much  greater  care  is  required  in  hand- 
ling them  in  the  dark-room.  Only  a  very  small 
amount  of  light  of  the  deepest  ruby  color  obtain- 
able must  be  allowed  to  reach  the  sensitive  sur- 
face at  any  time  until  after  development  is  com- 
pleted, and  this  necessity  for  working  in  such 
deep  gloom  is  certainly  a  great  drawback  to  the 
process.  But  where  paintings  and  flowers  have 
to  be  photographed,  or  it  is  desired  to  reproduce 
special  effects  in  nature  where  the  colors  are  of 
a  kind  to  be  spoiled  if  ordinary  plates  are  used, 
the  disadvantages  of  the  process  are  well  worth 
braving. 

Celluloid  Films  are  coated  with  the  sensitive 
emulsion,  as  well  as  glass  plates,  and  in  many 
cases  the  traveling  photographer  will  do  well  to 
employ  them,  for  they  have  some  advantages 
over  plates.  They  are  much  lighter,  and  a  gross 
of  cut  films  occupies  but  little  more  space  than 
a  dozen  glass  plates.  Glass  plates  and  celluloid 
films  can  in  many  cases  be  procured  from  the 
same  makers  and  may  be  treated  exactly  alike, 
both  as  regards  exposure  and  development. 


54 


These  films  are  put  up  in  two  forms,  viz. :  Cut 
(or  sheet)  films  and  film  cartridges. 

The  cut  films  are  exactly  like  dry  plates,  ex- 
cept that  as  a  support  for  the  sensitive  emulsion 
a  sheet  of  celluloid  is  used  instead  of  glass. 
These  films  are  cut  into  standard  sizes  and  are 
put  up  one  dozen  in  a  package  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  dry  plates.  They  are  used  by 
means  of  cut  film  holders  and  are  loaded  into  the 
holders  and  exposed  in  the  camera  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  are  dry  plates. 

Film  Cartridges. — These  are  adaptable  for  use 
only  in  that  class  of  hand  cameras  generally  de- 
scribed as  Kodaks  and  in  cartridge  roll  holders. 

It  is  upon  the  film  cartridge  that 
the  success  of  the  Kodak  system  is 
based.  It  is  this  that  has  made  pocket 
photography  practical  and  has  made  it 
possible  to  do  away  with  the  dark 
room  in  unloading  the  camera. 

A  wooden  spool  with  a  flange  on 
each  end,  between  which  flanges  is 
wound  a  long  strip  of  black  paper,  is 
the  simple  principle  of  the  film  cart- 
ridge.    (See  Fig.  34.)     Attached  to 
the  inner  side  of  the  black  paper  is  a 
Fig.  34.     strip  of  film ;  the  film  strip,  however, 
is  several  inches  shorter  than  the  paper  strip, 
and  when  all  is  wound  on  the  spool  no  light  can 
touch  the  film. 

When  all  the  exposures  in  the  cartridge  have 
been  made  the  exposed  cartridge  is  removed  in 
daylight  without  danger  of  injury. 

The  black  paper  running  the  full  length  of  the 
film,  extending  beyond  each  end  and  threading 
into  the  ''carrying  spool"  and  into  the  ''winding 
reel/'  takes  all  the  tension.    There  is  no  strain 


55 


on  the  film  (which  is  carried  along  by  the  black 
paper),  and  there  are  no  joints  of  film  and  paper 
to  give  way  under  the  pull  of  the  winding  reel. 

Cartridge  films  are  procurable  containing 
either  two,  four,  six  or  twelve  exposures,  or 
''double-two/'  The  *'double-two"  cartridges,  as 
the  name  implies,  contain  film  for  four  exposures, 
but  are  so  Avound  that  two  exposures  may  be 
made  and  then  removed  in  daylight  and  the  re- 
maining two  exposures  threaded  up  for  further 
use ;  or,  if  preferred,  the  operator  may  make  the 
entire  four  exposures  with  a  single  loading,  and 
he  has  the  option,  until  making  ready  for  the 
third  exposure,  of  handling  the  film  in  either 
way. 

Exposures  with  cartridge  film  are  the  same  as 
given  for  plates  and  cut  films.  Development  of 
the  negative  is  practically  the  same  as  instruc- 
tions given  for  developing  plates.  However, 
some  special  instructions  in  regard  to  handling 
them  are  necessary,  and  these  appear  in  Chapter 
on  ''Developing." 


CHAPTER  IX, 


LOADING    THE    FILM    CAMERA  AND 
ROLL    HOLDER  —  LOADING  THE 
PLATE-HOLDER— FOCUSING. 

Let  it  now  be  assumed  that  the  embryo  pho- 
tographer has  provided  himself  with  the  various 
component  parts  of  his  equipment  and  is  anxious 
to  begin  active  operations.   The  first  step  is  to 

Get  Acquainted  with  the  Camera. — ''How  shall 
it  be  loaded?''  This  is  the  first  question  which 
suggests  itself  to  ninety-nine  people  out  of  one 
hundred,  and  the  answer  is,  ''Do  not  load  it — at 
least,  not  until  its  workings  are  fully  under- 
stood/' 

The  shutter  should  first  be  tried  and  worked 
several  times  for  both  time  and  instantaneous 
exposures,  until  perfect  familiarity  with  its  ac- 
tion is  obtained.  Careful  note  of  the  diaphragms 
or  stops  should  be  made,  and  the  fact  will  be  dis- 
closed that  with  the  largest  opening  the  greatest 
quantity  of  light  will  pass  through  the  lens  in 
a  given  time.  This  will  demonstrate  why  the 
larger  openings  for  snapshots  and  the  smaller 
ones  for  time  exposures  are  used.  Having  mas- 
tered the  shutter  and  the  focusing  arrangement, 
if  there  is  one  on  the  camera  v^ed,  and  having 
obtained  a  slight  idea  of  the  conditions  neces- 
sary for  successful  picture  taking,  the  instrument 
may  be  loaded. 

Camera  (or  Plate  Holder)  Loading. — With  a 
kodak  or  cartridge  roll  holder  this  operation  is 
performed  in  daylight  and  is  very  simple.  The 
film  is  put  up  in  light-tight  rolls,  and  extending 

56 


the  full  length  of  the  strip  of  film  and  several 
inches  beyond  each  end  is  a  strip  of  black  paper, 
which,  in  connection  with  the  flanges  on  the 
spool,  forms  a  light-proof  cartridge. 

After  inserting  the  spool  and  threading  up  the 
black  paper  the  camera  is  closed  and  the  key- 
turned  until  the  black  paper  has  been  reeled  off 
and  the  sensitive  film  brought  into  place  in  the 
focal  plane.  The  black  paper  runs  with  and  be- 
hind the  film,  and  at  proper  intervals  is  marked 
in  white  with  the  number  of  the  section  of  film, 
I,  2,  3,  etc.  In  the  back  of  the  camera  is  a  small 
red  window,  through  which  the  figures  appear 
as  the  key  is  turned.  These  figures  show  just 
how  far  to  turn  the  key  and  how  many  expos- 
ures have  been  made.  After  all  the  exposures 
have  been  made  a  few  extra  turns  of  the  key 
entirely  covers  the  film  with  black  paper,  and 
the  camera  may  be  unloaded  in  daylight. 

It  is  all  very  simple,  and  with  each  camera 
is  a  manual  for  the  guidance  of  the  student.  The 
amateur  must  bear  constantly  in  mind,  however, 
that  the  black  paper  must  be  kept  tightly  rolled 
about  the  film  all  of  the  time  until  it  is  in  place 
and  the  camera  closed,  for  should  the  film  be  ex- 
posed to  daylight  for  even  a  hundredth  part  of 
a  second  its  ruin  would  be  accomplished. 

Loading  with  Plates. — Assuming  that  the  am- 
ateur is  operating  a  plate  camera,  and  has  de- 
cided upon  the  brand  of  plates  or  films  he  will 
use,  he  should  be  reminded  that  the  treatment 
for  sheet  films  is  precisely  the  same  as  that 
for  plates,  concerning  loading  and  exposures, 
and  the  following  instructions  will  there- 
fore apply  to  both  unless  otherwise  stated. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  place  the  plate 
or  film  in  the  plate-holder.     Remember,  the 


58 


plate  is  very  sensitive  to  light — sensitive  in 
a  way  that  few  beginners  can  understand  or  cal- 
culate. Very  great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  dark  room  is  safe,  that  no  extraneous  light 
is  allowed  to  enter,  for  if  it  does  all  future  ef- 
forts will  be  useless.  The  best  test  is  for  the 
operator  to  shut  himself  up  in  a  dark  room  until 
his  eyes  have  become  accustomed  to  the  gloom, 
and  if  he  then  detects  no  light  filtering  into  the 
room  he  may  consider  it  ''safe,''  but  if  any  rays  or 
gleams  are  observed  entering  under  the  door  or 
through  crevices  around  the  blocked  up  window 
the  apertures  should  be  tightly  closed. 

The  lamp  by  whose  light  the  operations  are  to 
be  conducted  must  not  necessarily  be  considered 
"safe"  because  it  is  glazed  with  red  glass,  but  it 
must  shed  a  particular  quality  of  red  light  and  ^ 
not  too  much  of  it. 

First  dust  out  the  inside  of  all  the  plate-holders, 
for  every  grain  of  dust  that  settles  on  the  plates 
will  leave  a  little  white  speck  upon  the  finished 
negative.  Then,  as  far  away  from  the  red  light 
as  practicable  to  see,  open  the  packet  of  plates. 
Every  pair  will  be  face  to  face,  with  a  piece  of 
card  at  the  edges  to  prevent  them  from  actually 
touching  one  another.  If  there  is  any  doubt  as 
to  which  is  the  face,  remember  that  the  shiny 
side  is  the  plain  glass — or  celluloid  film,  as  the 
case  may  be — and  that,  of  course,  is  the  back. 
Put  them  in  the  plate-holder,  one  in  each  side. 
The  sensitized  side  of  the  plate  has  to  face  the 
lens  of  the  camera,  so  that  the  plate  must  be 
placed  in  the  plate-holder  with  the  dull  side  next 
the  slide. 

All  the  holders  having  been  charged  in  this 
manner  and  securely  closed  before  leaving  the 
shelter  of  the  dark  room,  the  photographer  is 


59 


ready  for  work,  and  for  a  beginner  the  subject 
should  be  a  landscape  or  something  of  that  char- 
acter, as  portraiture  is  the  most  difficult  branch 
of  photography. 

Focusing. — Before  proceeding  to  compose  the 
picture  or  to  make  the  exposures  it  is  necessary 
for  the  amateur  to  learn  what  this  much  used 
word  ''focus"  signifies.  The  term  focus  means 
bringing  the  rays  of  light  forming  the  picture 
through  the  lens  to  a  point  where  they  are 
shown  clear  and  distinct  upon  the  ground  glass 
or  similar  surface.  In  a  scene  or  image  slightly 
out  of  focus  the  lines  will  be  blurred  and  run 
into  each  other,  appearing  to  the  naked  eye  some- 
what like  a  house  seen  in  the  distance  through  a 
very  heavy  fog.  With  a  fixed  focus  camera  the 
lens  is  constructed  and  adjusted  in  the  camera 
by  the  manufacturer  so  that  all  objects  that  come 
within  the  range  of  the  lens  will  be  in  focus 
where  the  plate-holder  is  placed.  The  adjust- 
able focus  camera  is  constructed  with  a  ground 
glass  screen  at  the  back  of  the  camera  and  be- 
tween it  and  the  lens  is  a  flexible  bellows  which 
can  be  operated  to  bring  the  lens  and  ground 
glass  nearer  together  or  farther  apart  as  the  case 
may  require.  For  instance,  where  the  objects 
to  be  photographed  are  close  at  hand,  the  lens 
and  ground  glass  should  be  extended;  for  ob- 
jects farther  away  the  lens  and  ground  glass 
should  be  brought  nearer  together.  In  making 
this  adjustment  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the 
image  or  picture  on  the  ground  glass  to  deter- 
mine when  it  is  clear  and  sharp.  The  image  will 
appear  to  better  advantage  if  the  light  is  ex- 
cluded between  the  eye  and  the  ground  glass 
screen.  This  is  accomplished  by  putting  the 
camera  on  a  tripod  and  placing  a  cloth  over  the 


6o 


head  and  camera,  excluding  the  light;  this  is 
commonly  called  a  ''focusing  cloth/'  The  opera- 
tion is  called  focusing.  (See  Fig.  35.)  In  order 
to  get  as  sharp  a  negative  on  the  plate  as  ap- 
pears on  the  ground  glass  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  plate,  when  inserted  in  the  camera 
box,  be  placed  exactly  the  same  distance  from 


the  lens  to  the  ground  glass  as  it  was  at  the  time 
of  focusing.  The  squares  of  ground  glass  in 
frames  and  plate-holders  are  supposed  to  be  ac- 
curately adjusted  in  harmony  with  each  other  to 
produce  this  effect;  where  such  is  not  the  case, 
as  sometimes  happens,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
have  the  register  between  the  two  accurately  re- 
adjusted. 


Fig.  35. 


CHAPTER  X. 


LANDSCAPE      PHOTOGRAPHY— ARCHI- 
TECTURAL SUBJECTS. 

Lighting  and  Composition. — The  next  pro- 
gressive step  in  the  ama- 
teur's experience  is  the 
arrangement  or  composi- 
tion of  his  picture.  Into 
this  the  proper  lighting  of 
his  subject  enters  as  a 
most  important  factor. 

A  rule  may  be  laid 
down  and  followed  in  re- 
gard to  lighting.  The 
principal  source  of  light 
should  come  either  from 
the  upper  right  or  the 
left  of  the  scene.  A  scene 
photographed  with  the 
sun  directly  at  the  back  of 
the  camera  will  usually  be 
flat  or  tame  in  photo- 
graphic effect,  because  no 
shadows  are  visible;  nei- 
ther should  the  sun  be  di- 
rectly in  front  of  the  lens, 
as  the  scene  would  consist 
of~nearly  all  shadows.  An 
exception  to  this  rule  can 
GBAND  CANON  OF  AEizo»A.  be    applied    to  marine 

views ;    the  greatest 
amount  of  shadow  obtain- 
able in  these  gives  the  boldest  results. 

6i 


62 


Painters  say  that  the  trouble  ^ith  photog- 
raphy is  that  it  reproduces  with  perfect  fidelity 
the  unimportant  details  of  nature,  but  fails  to 
portray  her  strength  and  character,  her  subtle 
moods,  her  broad  effects.  But  occasionally  the 
camera  falls  into  the  hands  of  an  artist  who  han- 
dles it  with  the  master's  touch,  and  painters  and 
sculptors  and  critics  must  applaud. 

Too  much  detail  is  the  weak  point  in  nine  out 
of  ev^ry  ten  landscape  photographs.  The  aim 
of  the  artistic  photographer  should  be  to  pre- 
serve in  his  pictures  that  freedom  from  inappro- 
priate objects  and  superfluity  of  detail  which,  by 
detracting  from  their  simplicity,  destroy  their 
real  strength  and  value. 

A  ''pretty  bit"  is  always  preferable  to  a  ''gen- 
eral view.''  It  centers  the  interest.  A  whole 
township  on  a  single  plate  is  inartistic  unless 
the  township  consists  of  a  towering  peak  which 
of  itself  is  a  picture.       (See  Figs.  36-37.) 

Avoid  giving  the  pic- 
ture a  mechanical  look  by 
breaking  up,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  straight  lines, 
yet  preserving  enough  of 
them  so  that  it  will  not  be 
a  jumble.  Do  not  bring 
the  horizon  line,  especial- 
ly if  it  be  unbroken,  across 
the  center  of  the  picture, 
but  have  it  either  above  or 
below  the  center.  On  the 
other  hand,  to  be  success- 
ful, a  picture  must  be  well 
balanced  in  light  and 
shade,  or  it  will  appear  to 
be    "  lop  -  sided."  Some 


Fig.  37. 

LOG  TEAIN  IN  THE 
WOODS. 


63 


workers,  and  good  ones,  too,  claim  that  in  composi- 
tion certain  geometrical  figures  must  be  followed — 
the  triangle,  the  semicircle,  etc.— but  if  the  forego- 
ing hints  be  borne  in  mind  they  will  suffice  for  the 
beginner,  will  start  him  in  the  right  direction  and 
later  on,  when  he  has  had  a  itw  lessons  in  the 
school  of  experience,  he  can  if  he  likes,  take  up  a 
more  detailed  study  of  the  rules  of  composition. 

Exposing. — The  first  difficulty  which  presents 
itself  is  the  length  of  exposure.  How  long  shall 
the  shutter  be  allowed  to  remain  open?  is  the 
question,  and  it  is  a  most  difficult  one  to  an- 
swer. Assuming  that  the  photographer  pos- 
sesses only  one  lens,  that  he  has  decided  to  keep 
to  one  size  of  stop  for  the  present — say  F-32 — 
and  that  he  intends  only  to  use  one  speed  of 
plates,  three  of  the  several  factors  which  govern 
the  length  of  the  exposure  are  fixed  and  the  mat- 
ter is  considerably  simplified,  but  the  chief  fac- 
tors which  remain  are  the  nature  of  the  subject 
and  the  quality  of  the  light  with  which  it  is  illu- 
minated. 

An  old  adage  says  that  exposure  should  be 
made  for  the  shadows  and  let  the  high  lights 
take  care  of  themselves.  The  darkest  portions 
are  to  be  found  among  the  trees,  and  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  it  may  be  taken  that  the  nearer  the 
object  is  to  the  camera  the  longer  will  be  the 
exposure  it  will  require,  for  there  is  less  of  that 
ever-present  haze  between  it  and  the  lens,  and 
that  haze,  often  invisible,  reflects  into  the  camera 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  kind  of  light 
which  affects  the  plate.  Let  it  be  assumed  that 
a  summer's  day  has  been  chosen,  and  the  ex- 
posure is  to  be  made  somewhere  towards  noon. 
The  stop  is  F-32,  and  the  plate  a  slow  one.  An 


64 


exposure  of  three  seconds  should  be  about  right, 
but  there  are  so  many  things  which  have  a  modi- 
fying effect  upon  it  that  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  give  more  than  the  merest  idea  of  its  length. 
To  expose  correctly  can  only  be  learned  by  con- 
siderable experience,  by  repeated  trials  and  care- 
ful comparisons  of  the  results.  Full  directions 
will  be  given  in  the  chapter  in  which  develop- 
ment comes  under  consideration,  by  which  the 
novice  can  tell  whether  he  has  erred  on  the  side 
of  over  or  under  exposure,  and  he  will  soon  learn 
to  estimate  pretty  correctly  the  approximate  ex- 
tent of  the  error.  A  few  trials  made  with  intelli- 
gence will  speedily  give  him  a  very  good  idea 
as  to  the  duration  of  the  exposure  for  a  given 
subject  under  given  conditions,  and  from  the 
knowledge  thus  gained  he  will  be  able  to  calcu- 
late the  correct  exposures  for  other  conditions. 

This  same  view  made  the  subject  of  a  photo- 
graph at  midday  in  the  winter  would  require  an 
exposure  of  longer  duration,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  light.  Or,  again,  towards  evening, 
even  in  the  middle  of  summer,  when  the  sun  is 
in  the  west,  and  the  whole  landscape  is  bathed 
in  the  reddening  rays  of  the  setting  sun,  the 
three  seconds'  exposure  may  be  multiplied  with- 
out fear  of  the  picture  being  overdone.  It  is  im- 
possible to  teach  the  art  of  correct  exposure ;  it 
will  only  come  as  the  result  of  experience.  The 
beginner  should  do  his  best  to  keep  the  condi- 
tions as  invariable  as  possible ;  that  is  to  say, 
he  should,  just  at  first,  keep  to  one  class  of  sub- 
ject and  one  time  of  day,  as  well  as  to  one  lens 
and  one  plate.  Then  he  can  get  his  exposure 
right  with  very  little  trouble  for  that  one  set  of 
factors. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  finished  photograph 
should  show  a  fair  amount  of  detail,  but  in  secur- 


65 


ing  this  result  care  must  be  exercised  in  order 
not  to  over-expose  the  distant  hills  so  that  they 
become  merged  in  the  sky  and  get  lost.  If  in 
the  developed  negative  the  landscape  stands  out 
almost  white,  while  the  sky  is  a  dense  black,  and 
the  hills  much  too  plainly  marked,  the  exposure 
has  been  too  short,  and  the  result  is  extreme  con- 
trasts of  black  and  white,  with  no  delicate  half- 
tones and  an  absolute  lack  of  detail  in  all  the 
deeper  shadows.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is 
any  amount  of  detail  in  the  landscape,  while  the 
sky  is  a  thin  gray,  with  the  hills  invisible,  and 
there  is  a  general  dullness  and  lack  of  contrast 
about  the  whole  thing,  it  may  be  safely  surmised 
that  over-exposure  is  the  fault.  This  matter  will 
be  more  fully  dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on  ''de- 
veloping.'' For  the  present  I  will  confine  myself 
to  again  hinting  that  it  is  better  to  over  than  to 
under  expose,  for  this  defect  can  often  be  com- 
pensated for  in  development,  while  for  the  other 
there  is  no  cure,  and  we  will  imagine  that  the  ex- 
posure of  this  particular  subject  has  been  mas- 
tered so  that  we  can  pass  on  to  the  consideration 
of  others. 

In  an  open  view,  where  there  are  no  heavy 
shadows  in  the  foreground,  the  necessary  ex- 
posure will  be  much  shorter,  and  where  a  land- 
scape is  taken  from  the  top  of  a  hill  or  high 
building,  the  time  should  be  very  short,  indeed, 
for  all  portions  of  the  view  are  distant.  In  a 
view  of  this  description,  where  there  is  already 
a  great  lack  of  contrast,  full  advantage  should  be 
taken  of  the  fact  that  under-exposure,  accom- 
panied by  judicious  ''forcing''  in  development, 
tends  to  increase  of  contrast.  Photographs  taken 
in  woods  and  wherever  there  are  dense  masses 
of  foliage,  will  require  a  much  longer  exposure 


66 


than  at  first  sight  would  seem  necessar}^  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  green  light  which  finds  its 
way  through  the  interstices  of  the  trees  is  to  a 
great  extent  robbed  of  its  actinic  power,  and  is 
no  longer  able  to  affect  the  sensitive  plate  to  the 
same  degree. 

Architectural  Subjects. — Architectural  sub- 
jects are  deservedly  great  favorites  with  many 
photographers,  for  it  is  in  the  making  of  pictures 
that  come  under  this  heading  that  photography 
finds  one  of  its  most  pleasing  features.  Its  prac- 
tice is  not  attended  with  any  particular  difficul- 
ties, but  it  is  one  of  those  branches  of  the  art 
which  will  reward,  by  conferring  the  ability  to 
produce  fresh  beauties,  the  painstaking  labor  of 
the  most  highly  accomplished  photographer. 
Although  the  merest  tyro  may  begin  on  archi- 
tectural work  at  once  if  he  please,  yet  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  attain  the  highest  plane  of  excel- 
lence, for  very  rarely  is  a  photograph  of  a  given 
building  produced  so  perfect  that,  under  certain 
conditions,  a  better  one  could  not  be  made. 


Fig.  38.  Fig.  39. 


These  two  views  (Figs.  38-39)  of  the  same 
building  illustrate  the  importance  of  shadows. 
They  were  made  from  the  same  point  of  view. 
The  one  at  the  right  was  photographed  at  10  a. 


67 


m.,  the  camera  pointing  northeast.  Observe  the 
shadows,  giving  the  proper  projection  to  the 
architecture. 

The  picture  at  the  left  was  taken  at  i  p.  m., 
with  the  sun  almost  directly  behind  the  camera. 
It  is  thus  almost  devoid  of  shadow,  resulting  in  a 
flat  and  imperfect  photograph. 

All  architecture  is  full  of  straight  lines ;  there- 
fore it  is  necessary  to  use,  when  portraying  it, 
more  than  in  anything  else,  apparatus  which  will 
not  give  distortion.  In  the  first  place,  a  Recti- 
linear lens  is  a  necessity  for  reasons  already 
stated  (see  Chapter  on  ''Lenses''),  and  then 
again  the  rising  front  and  the  swing  back  with 
which  the  camera  is  fitted,  but  which,  up  to  the 
present,  has  been  somewhat  of  a  mystery,  be- 
comes an  important  adjunct. 

USE  OF  THE  SWING  BACK. 

Suppose  it  is  desired  to  take  a  photograph  of 
the  exterior  of  a  high  building.  In  order  to  in- 
clude the  upper  portion  in  the  picture  it  will  be 
necessary  to  tilt  the  camera  upwards.  Now  the 
upper  parts  will  be  farther  away  from  the  lens 
than  the  lower  portions,  consequently  they  will 
be  reproduced  smaller  in  proportion,  and  all 
parallel  lines  running  upwards  will  follow  the 
venal  law  of  perspective  and  appear  to  converge. 
But  artists  do  not  recognize  that  parallel  lines 
running  upwards  in  a  high  building  must  appear 
in  the  eye  of  an  observer  stationed  below  to  con- 
verge towards  the  top,  and  buildings  are  so  often 
portrayed  with  the  vertical  lines  drawn  strictly 
parallel  that  a  photograph  in  which  they  are 
shown  convergent  gives  to  the  building  a  top- 
pling-down  appearance  which  is  not  pleasing  to 


68 


the  artistic  eye.  It  is  the  function  of  the  swing 
back  to  overcome  this  defect.  The  back  of  the 
camera  should  always  be  kept  strictly  vertical 
when  photographing  architectural  subjects,  and 
the  upright  lines  in  the  original  will  be  pro- 
duced upright  in  the  resulting  picture.  Another 
method  by  which  the  same  result  may  be 
brought  about  to  a  modified  extent  is  by  the  em- 
ployment of  the  rising  and  falling  post.  This 
method  has  the  disadvantage,  however,  that  in 
extreme  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  raise  the 
lens  to  such  an  extent  that  the  light  passing 
through  it  cannot  reach  the  lower  portion  of  the 
plate,  which  is  therefore  left  blank.  As  regards 
the  actual  length  of  exposure  where  architectural 
subjects  are  concerned,  this  is  governed  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  landscape,  but 
as  a  general  rule  the  times  should  be  shorter.  A 
new  white  building  will  only  require  about  half 
the  time  that  would  be  necessary  for  a  landscape 
view  under  similar  conditions  as  to  lighting,  and 
so  on,  while  one  that  is  built  of  red  brick  or 
that  has  become  blackened  with  age  will  neces- 
sitate a  correspondingly  longer  exposure. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


PORTRAIT  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Portraiture  at  Home. — There  is  no  more  inter- 
esting branch  of  picture  making  than  portraiture, 

and  the  required  acces- 
sories can  be  found  in 
every  home.  To  attain 
good  results  it  may 
take  a  little  patience 
and  study,  but  for  all 
this  the  amateur  will  be 
well  repaid  in  the  satis- 
faction brought  by  his 
first  successes.  The 
first  element  to  be 
taken  into  considera- 
tion is  the  light.  A 
north  light  is  prefera- 
ble, and  it  should,  if 
possible,  be  unobstruct- 
ed by  trees  or  build- 
ings ;  but  where  this 
cannot  be  avoided  the 
disadvantage  should  be 
compensated  for  by 
'  giving  additional  time 
to  exposure.  The  light 
should  also  be  a  top 
light — that  is,  it  should 
be  above  the  head  of  the  sitter,  a  result  easily  ac- 
complished by  opening  blinds  and  shades  to  their 
full  limit  and  then  pinning  a  cloth  over  the  lower 
half  of  the  window. 

69 


A  PEOFILE  PORTEAIT. 

Photographed  in  an  ordinary  sit- 
ting room  with  arrangement  of 
light,  camera  and  subject  ac- 
cording to  illustration  Fig.  40. 


70 


Cross  Light  to  Be  Avoided. — All  light  should 
come  from  one  source,  otherwise  the  shadows 
will  be  so  cut  up  as  to  lend  a  disagreeable  and 
unnatural  appearance  to  the  face. 

A  room  with  a  large  window  should  be  chosen 
as  the  place  for  operations,  and  a  day  when  the 
sun  is  not  shining  through  the  window,  but  when 
its  light  is  reflected  in  by  a  white  cloud  or  a  light- 
painted  house  opposite.  Place  the  sitter  about 
three  or  four  feet  from  the  window  and  slightly 
behind  it,  so  that  the  majority  of  the  light  will 
fall  upon  his  face  from  the  front  and  from  above. 
This  will  probably  leave  the  other  side  of  the 
face  in  deep  shadow — a  grave  fault,  which  must 
be  removed  by  the  aid  of  a  white  screen,  such  as 
can  be  improvised  by  hanging  a  white  sheet  over 
a  clothes-horse.  This  reflector  should  be 
placed  beside  the  sitter,  but  slightly  in  front 
on  the  opposite  side  to  the  window,  and 
its  position  may  be  varied  and  the  quantity  and 
direction  of  the  light  from  the  window  modified 
by  drawing  the  curtains  from  place  to  place,  un- 
til that  kind  of  illumination  is  obtained  which  is 
calculated  to  give  the  best  effect  to  the  sitter's 
particular  style  of  features.  In  portraiture,  as 
in  most  indoor  photography,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  very  high  contrasts  in  the  resultant  print.  A 
face  which  is  much  more  brightly  lighted  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other,  though  not  sufficiently  so 
as  to  seem  objectionable,  will  appear  in  the  pho- 
tograph perfectly  white  and  absolutely  black — ^ 
like  so  much  chalk  and  soot.  Everything  should 
be  done  to  lessen  the  contrasts  by  carefully  ar- 
ranging the  light  before  exposure,  and  no  haste 
should  be  made  to  put  the  cap  on  the  lens  or  to 
close  the  shutter,  for  a  full  exposure  will  ma- 
terially help  to  get  the  desired  effect.   Of  course, 


71 


it  should  not  be  overdone.  There  should  be  con- 
siderably more  light  on  one  side  of  the  face  than 
on  the  other,  or  it  will  appear  perfectly  flat  and 
chalky,  with  many  of  the  features  invisible  alto- 
gether. It  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that 
in  indoor  portraiture  the  contrasts  are  liable  to 
exaggeration,  and  precautions  should  be  taken 
against  an  undue  hardness  in  the  resulting  print. 

How  the  sitter  is  to  be  placed  depends  largely 
upon  the  features.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have 
the  eyes  in  an  easy  and  natural  position  and 
looking  very  nearly  straight  ahead.  If  turned 
decidedly  to  either  side  they  will  give  a  disagree- 
able expression,  a  sort  of  caricature  of  slyness. 

The  background  should  be  appropriate  and 
simple  and  should  form  a  contrast  with  the  sitter. 
A  portiere  hung  against  the  wall  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  dark  background,  and  where  a  light 
one  is  desirable  a  sheet  will  answer  the  purpose; 
but  in  case  it  is  used  the  assistance  of  a  third 
party  should  be  called  in  to  keep  the  sheet  in  mo- 
tion during  exposure,  so  that  it  will  be  out  of 
focus.  A  good  light  background  may  frequently 
be  obtained  by  posing  the  subject  in  front  of  a 
lace  window  curtain,  the  shades,  of  course,  being 
drawn  down  in  such  a  case.  As  a  rule,  however, 
the  dark  backgrounds  are  more  desirable,  and 
prints  from  negatives  made  with  them  are  more 
readily  handled  by  the  amateur  than  those  with 
light  backgrounds,  which  require  vignetting. 

After  the  first  experiments  the  student  will 
learn  to  study  his  sitter's  face  critically  and  will 
become  able  to  judge  by  a  rapid  scanning  of  the 
features  whether  a  profile,  a  half  or  a  full  front 
will  give  the  most  artistic  results. 

The  largest  stop  that  will  cut  the  picture 
sharply  should  be  employed,  thus  making  a  short 


72 


exposure  possible,  for  the  shorter  the  exposure 
the  more  natural  will  be  the  expression  on  the 
face  of  the  sitter.  No  matter  if  the  background 
is  out  of  focus ;  that  is  merely  a  necessary  evil 
in  the  picture  and  will  divert  less  attention  from 
the  subject  if  a  trifle  subdued  by  indistinctness. 

In  the  case  of  a  portrait  taken  in  the  interior 
of  an  ordinary  room,  the  larger  lens  aperture  is 
a  positive  necessity,  for  the  exposure  necessary 
with  a  smaller  one  would  be  so  inordinately  long 
as  to  tire  out  the  most  patient  sitter. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  what  would 
be  the  correct  exposure  for  a  portrait  in 
an  ordinary  room ;  there  are  so  many  vary- 
ing conditions  to  be  considered  that  any  at- 
tempt to  take  them  into  account  in  imagination 
would  only  be  confusing.  There  is  nothing  for 
it  but  for  the  tyro  to  make  a  guess  at  its  length 
and  then  to  correct  it  according  to  results.  Then, 
having  ascertained  what  length  of  time  will  yield 
satisfactory  results  under  a  certain  set  of  con- 
ditions, its  estimation  for  varying  cases  is  as 
much  a  matter  of  calculation  as  anything  else. 
However,  an  approximate  idea  of  the  length  of 
exposure  necessary  may  be  gathered  from  the 
table,  given  under  the  chapter,  ''Photograph- 
ing Interiors/'  Remember  that  when  you  double 
the  diameter  of  the  aperture  of  the  lens  you  in- 
crease its  size  four-fold,  so  that  it  will  pass  four 
times  as  much  light  and  the  photograph  taken 
with  it  will  only  require  one-quarter  the  time  of 
exposure.  The  length  of  the  exposure  is  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  lens 
aperture. 

Illustrations.  —  The  following  illustrations 
(Fig.  40)  will  greatly  assist  the  amateur  to  a 


73 


clear  understanding  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
room  and  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  the 
sitter. 

This  illustration  shows  a  room  16x20  feet, 
containing  two  windows,  both  fronting  south. 
The  window  at  the  right  is  completely  covered 
by  an  opaque  curtain,  and.  the  other  window  has 


Fig.  40. 


its  lower  half  covered  by  a  black  cloth,  leaving 
the  upper  half  open,  thus  admitting  the  light  to 
make  the  portrait.  Background  and  chair  were 
placed  as  shown  in  illustration.  The  child's  por- 
trait (Fig.  41)  was  produced  as  shown  in  Fig. 
40.  The  black  line  on  the  floor  shows  the  posi- 
tion of  the  reflector,  which  was  three  and  one- 
half  feet  from  the  child.   The  chair  in  which  she 


74 


was  sitting  was  two  and  one-half  feet  from  the 
window,  and  the  background  was  three  feet  be- 
hind the  child. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  42  was  taken  in  a 
room  with  three  windows.  Two  of  these  were 
closed,  admitting  no  light.  The  window  at  the 
right  of  the  child,  and  on  the  casing  of  which 
the  child  rests  its  hand,  was  closed  by  a  dark 


Fig.  41. 


curtain  up  to  a  point  even  with  the  child's  head. 
The  light  producing  the  portrait  comes  only 
from  the  upper  part  pf  this  window.  The  re- 
flector used  to  soften  the  shadow  side  of  the  face 
was  a  sheet  of  white  cloth  about  five  feet  square 
tacked  to  the  tops  of  two  high-backed  chairs 
about  three  and  one-half  feet  from  the  child.  It 
stood  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  to  a  line 


75 


drawn  between  the  child  and  the  camera.  The 
walls  of  the  room  served  as  a  background. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  43  is  that  of  a 
young  lady  taken  in  the  same  position  as  por- 
trait of  child  shown  in  Fig.  41,  with  no  change 
of  either  background,  reflector,  light  or  camera- 


FiG.  42. 

The  portrait  shown  in  Fig.  44  was  made  under 
the  same  conditions,  except  that  the  background 
was  moved  nearer  to  the  wall,  the  camera  was 
moved  farther  over  to  the  middle  of  the  room, 
and  the  reflector  was  placed  nearer  to  the  sitter. 
A  white  background  should  not  be  used,  for  the 
reason  that  it  reflects  so  much  white  light. 


76 


The  silhouette  (Fig.  45)  was  made  by  placing 
the  sitter  at  an  ordinary  window,  with  the  cam- 
era lower  than  the  head.  A  snapshot  exposure 
was  made,  the  window  or  sky  serving  as  back- 
ground. 

What  is  known  as  a  Rembrandt  lighting  is 
often  very  effective  and  is  obtained  by  photo- 
graphing from  the  shaded  instead  of  from  the 
lighted  side  of  the  face.  The  relative  proportion 
of  the  shaded  and  lighted  sides  of  the  face  can 


Fig.  43.  Fig.  44. 


be  changed  by  simply  turning  the  sitter's  head 
toward  or  away  from  the  light.  A  slight  change 
in  position  makes  a  wonderful  change  in  the  light- 
ing, and  the  sitter's  face  should  be  carefully 
studied  to  obtain  the  best  effects. 

In  *'A  Rembrandt  Portrait''  (See  Fig.  46)  we 
give  a  marked  case  of  this  lighting.  In  '*The 
Chorister"  (See  Fig.  47)  the  artist  has  used  the 
Rembrandt  lighting  but  a  trifle.  Between  these 
two  extremes  many  effects  can  be  obtained  that 
are  also  desirable. 


77 


Outdoor  Portraiture. — Portraits  can  be  taken 
very  well  in  the  open  air,  and,  indeed,  provided 
certain  precautions  be  observed,  this  method  is 


Fig.  45.  Fig.  46. 


likely  to  give  qmte  as  satisfactory  results  in 
the  hands  of  an  amateur  who  does  not  possess 
a  regular  studio  as  will  indoor  work.  In  open 
air  portraiture,  to  cut  off  the  light  which  comes 
in  the  directions  in  which  it  is  not  required  in 
order  to  give  value  to  that  which  falls  in  the 
right  direction,  the  sitter  should  be  placed  in  an 
angle  of  a  wall  so  that  the  building  shields  him 
from  the  light  on  one  side,  and  if  there  be  any 
means  of  cutting  off  some  of  the  top  light,  so 
much  the  better.  As  an  idea  of  the  exposure 
required  in  such  a  case,  between  five  and  six 
seconds  may  be  quoted,  where  the  F-32  lens 
aperture  is  retained  with  the  slow  plates  on  a 
fine  day  in  summer.  This  should  be  only  taken 
as  a  basis  from  which  the  exposure  may  be  cal- 
culated; for  in  a  general  way  it  will  be  better 
to  employ  a  larger  lens  aperture  and  faster  plate 


78 

and  give  a  proportionately  shorter  exposure.  A 
stop  of  four  times  the  diameter,  which  would  be 
called  F-8,  would  necessitate  an  exposure,  as  al- 
ready explained,  only  one-sixteenth  as  long,  or 


Fig.  47. 


under  half  a  second ;  and  in  this  time  the  sitter 
will  have  little  chance  of  moving,  while  the  pho- 
tographer has  the  opportunity  of  seizing  that 
moment  for  exposure  when  the  subject  appears 


79 


at  his  best,  without  being  obliged  to  run  the  risk 
of  spoiling  everything  by  giving  warning  that 
he  is  ready  to  take  the  picture. 

Portraits  should  not  be  made  in  the  sunlight. 
However,  where  figures  are  merely  accessories 
to  a  landscape,  or  a  part  of  some  interesting 
scene,  there  is  no  harm  in  snapping  them  in  a 
bright  light,  but  where  the  face  is  the  central 
point  of  interest  in  the  picture  it  must  be  in  the 
shade.  Strong  sunlight  destroys  the  expression 
of  the  eyes,  while  the  heavy  shadows  cast  by 
the  nose  and  other  features,  or  by  the  hat,  if  one 
be  worn,  will  entirely  distort  the  face,  and  while 
a  likeness  may  remain,  it  will  certainly  be  an 
unkind  one.  Outdoor  portraits  should,  there- 
fore, be  taken  in  the  shade  of  a  veranda  or  tree 
and  made  by  time  exposure.  The  time  to  be 
given  must  be  learned  by  experience,  depending 
largely  as  it  does  on  the  amount  of  reflected 
light,  the  hour  of  the  day  and  the  time  of  year. 
After  a  few  trials  the  amateur  will  be  able  to 
properly  judge  the  light  and -time  the  exposure, 
but  he  should  understand  that  it  is  easier  to 
save  an  overexposed  than  an  underexposed  nega- 
tive, and  he  should  therefore  be  sure  to  give  time 
enough. 

Of  one  thing,  however,  he  should  be  careful. 
Many  a  good  portrait  has  been  ruined  by  an  in- 
appropriate background,  and  there  is  no  more 
unsightly  or  more  commonly  used  background 
than  the  clapboarded  side  of  a  house.  The  regu- 
lar lines  crossing  the  picture  are  most  trying  to 
the  eyes  and  are  most  inartistic.  Backgrounds 
as  a  rule  should  form  a  contrast  with  the  sitter 
and  should  not  be  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
picture.  A  trellis  of  vines,  the  dense  shade  of  a 
grove  back  of  the  subject,  or  a  grassy  slope  all 
make  appropriate  backgrounds. 


CHAPTER  XIL 


PHOTOGRAPHING  INTERIORS. 

Lighting. — In  photographing  interiors  it  is 
necessary  to  give  greatly  increased  exposures, 


by  plates  specially  prepared,  called  *'non-hala- 
tion,''  or  ''double-coated,"  which  admit  of  a  wide 
latitude  of  exposure.  When  the  exposure  has 
been  correct  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful  re- 
sults can  be  obtained  by  proper  development. 

Photographing  interiors  and.  portraiture  in  or- 
dinary rooms  are  closely  allied,  for  in  many  re- 
spects there  are  marked  points  of  similarity.  For 
instance,  there  is  a  decided  tendency  to  the  ex- 
aggeration of  the  contrasts,  which  has  to  be  over- 
come in  the  same  manner  in  one  case  as  in  the 
other,  by  equalizing  the  illumination  as  much  as 
possible,  reducing  the  depth  of  the  shadows  and 


CORRIDOR    OF  CONGRES- 
SIONAL LIBRARY, 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


varied,  of  course,  accord- 
ing to  the  illumination, 
the  color  of  the  walls,  fur- 
niture, etc.  Even  in  well 
lighted  rooms  exposures 
should  seldom  be  less 
than  ten  to  twenty  sec- 
onds, and  others  from 
twenty-five  seconds  to 
hours,  as  in  the  case  of 
some  churches  with  col- 
ored glass  windows, 
where  light  is  subdued  by 
the  glass.  The  best  re- 
sults in  this  class  of  pho- 
tography   are  obtained 


80 


8i 


toning  down  the  brilliancy  of  the  high  lights,  and 
by  giving  exposures  of  amply  sufficient  length. 
As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  taken  that  in  the 
photography  of  interiors  it  is  better  to  use  a 
small  stop  in  the  lens  and  to  give  a  correspond- 
ingly long  exposure.  This  will  tend  to  reduce  the 
inordinate  contrasts,  and  there  is  seldom  any 
reason  why  the  time  should  be  unduly  hurried, 
as  is  often  required  in  the  case  of  portraiture. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  regard  to 
interior  photography,  as  in  most  other  branches 
of  the  art,  is  the  point  of  view  from  which  the 
picture  shall  be  taken.  In  the  case  of  a  small 
room  it  is  impossible  to  take  in  anything  but 
just  one  corner  of  it — unless  a  wide-angle  lens  is 
employed — and  the  difficulty  which  immediately 
presents  itself  is  to  make  that  one  corner  appear 
in  the  photograph  as  representative  of  the  whole 
as  possible.  A  wide-angle  lens  is  an  instrument 
which  has  been  designed  to  overcome  this  dif- 
ficulty in  connection  with  the  small  angle  of  view 
which  the  ordinary  lens  is  able  to  embrace.  It  is 
a  lens  of  very  short  focus  in  relation  to  the  size 
of  the  plate  which  it  will  cover,  and  consequently 
it  gives  much  smaller  images  and  can  throw  a 
large  quantity  of  them  onto  a  plaCe  of  given  size. 
However,  the  result  is  also  very  apt  to  be  that 
the  lines  of  perspective  are  very  much  distorted 
in  a  photograph  taken  in  this  manner,  and  a 
small  room  is  made  to  appear  like  a  long  gallery 
filled  with  horribly  disproportionate  furniture. 
It  is  perhaps  better  to  be  contented  with  an  in- 
complete but  true  representation  of  an  interior 
than  to  produce  a  viev/  which  shows  more  but 
shows  it  incorrectly.  In  a  general  way  it  is  best 
to  take  up  a  position  for  the  camera  in  one  cor- 
ner of  the  room,  for  in  a  square  room  this  gives 


82 


a  greater  distance,  and  the  opposite  corner  has 
better  pictorial  possibilities  than  a  flat  wall 
would  have.  The  camera  should  be  placed  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  height  of  the  eye,  so 
that  the  resulting  photograph  will  represent  the 
view  as  it  would  be  seen  by  a  person  standing 
at  the  point  whence  the  photograph  was  taken. 

Again,  as  regards  exposure,  it  is  impossible  to 
give  any  definite  instructions,  for  it  may  vary  to 
any  extent  from  half  a  minute  to  half  an  hour, 
and  under  difficult  conditions  may  easily  reach 
half  a  day  or  even  more.  The  only  thing  in  the 
nature  of  a  suggestion  which  I  can  give  is  that 
the  beginner  try  an  exposure  about  ten  times  as 
long  as  that  which  he  would  guess  to  be  correct, 
and  he  probably  will  not  be  far  out.  Unless  non- 
halation  plates  are  used  he  should  be  very  care- 
ful that  no  windows  form  any  portion  of  the 
picture,  unless  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  leave 
them  out  of  it,  for  these,  being  far  more  brilliant- 
ly lighted  than  the  other  portions,  will  be  suffi- 
ciently exposed  when  the  rest  of  the  picture  re- 
quires a  hundred  times  as  long.  The  result  of 
including  them  would  be  that  the  extra  exposure, 
as  it  were,  would,  by  the  action  known  as  hala- 
tion, spread  to  the  surrounding  portions  of  the 
picture  and  fog  them  in  that  distressing  manner 
sometimes  seen  in  photographs  of  churches  and 
other  similar  subjects.  If  the  light  from  the 
window  which  must  appear  in  the  picture  can 
be  blocked  out  by  such  means  as  drawing  a 
heavy  blind  or  hanging  a  thick  sheet  outside — 
the  interior  course  receiving  its  illumination 
from  some  other  source — there  is  no  reason  why 
the  result  should  not  be  satisfactory,  and  other- 
wise a  great  deal  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  some 
form  of  non-halation  or  ''backed''  plates. 
Care  should  also  be  taken  that  no  polished  metal 


83 


objects  are  allowed  to  reflect  light  directly  into 
the  camera,  for  if  they  do,  except  where  the  spe- 
cially prepared  plates  are  used,  such  things  will 
appear  surrounded  with  a  halo  which  will  not 
add  to  their  beauty. 

Approximate  Time  Needed  for  Interior  Ex- 
posures.— The  following  table  is  an  excellent 
guide  for  making  interior  exposures,  and  is  based 
upon  the  time  needed  for  exposures  with  the 
stop  ordinarily  used  for  snapshots  in  single  lens 
cameras,  and  with  the  No.  8  stop  in  all  rapid  rec- 
tilinear lenses.  When  a  smaller  stop  is  used  the 
time  must  be  increased  proportionately: 

White  walls  and  more  than  one  window — 
Bright  sun  outside,  2  seconds ;  hazy  sun,  5  sec- 
onds ;  cloudy  bright,  10  seconds ;  cloudy  dull,  20 
seconds. 

White  walls  and  only  one  window — Bright 
sun  outside,  3  seconds;  hazy  sun,  8  seconds; 
cloudy  bright,  15  seconds;  cloudy  dull,  30  sec- 
onds. 

Medium  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  more 
than  one  window — Bright  sun  outside,  4  sec- 
onds ;  hazy  sun,  10  seconds ;  cloudy  bright,  20 
seconds ;  cloudy  dull,  40  seconds. 

Medium  colored  walls  and  hangings  and 
only  one  window — Bright  sun  outside,  6  sec- 
onds; hazy  sun,  15  seconds;  cloudy  bright,  30 
seconds ;  cloudy  dull,  60  seconds. 

Dark  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  more 
than  one  window — Bright  sun  outside,  10  sec- 
onds ;  hazy  sun,  20  seconds ;  cloudy  bright,  40 
seconds ;  cloudy  dull,  i  minute  20  seconds. 

Dark  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  only  one 
window — Bright  sun  outside,  20  seconds ;  hazy 
sun,  40  seconds ;  cloudy  bright,  80  seconds ; 
cloudy  dull,  2  minutes  40  seconds. 


84 


The  foregoing  is  calculated  for  rooms  whose 
windows  get  the  direct  light  from  the  sky  from 
three  hours  after  sunrise  until  tkree  hours  before 
sunset.  If  earlier  or  later  the  time  required  will 
be  longer. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 


FLASHLIGHT  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Pictures  by  Flashlight, — The  rays  of  old  Sol, 
once  an  all-important  factor  in  picture  making, 
are  no  longer  an  essential  for  indoor  work.  For 
capturing  the  beauties  of  the  landscape  we  still 
depend  upon  him,  but  for  interior  work,  espe- 
cially at  night,  man's  ingenuity  has  supplied  a 
substitute  for  the  sun's  rays  equally  effective  and 
more  manageable.  For  many  purposes,  in  fact, 
the  flashlight  is  more  desirable  than  sunlight.  It 
can  always  be  depended  upon  to  shine  when 
wanted  and  with  just  the  proper  brilliancy;  it 
can  always  be  so  placed  as  to  make  the  shad- 
ows fall  in  the  desired  direction,  and,  photo- 
graphically speaking,  it  turns  night  into  *  day. 
To  the  amateur  ''bottled  sunlight''  is  an  especial 
convenience,  for  his  photographic  work  is  fre- 
quently confined  to  the  night  time,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  many  times  that  he  brings  the  flash- 
light into  play  in  photographing  his  friends  at 
evening  gatherings.  Indeed,  it  is  as  a  means  of 
photographing  one's  friends  on  such  occasions 
that  the  flashlight  is  most  commonly  used,  but 
the  experienced  amateur  knows  of  many  other 
ways  in  which  to  avail  himself  of  its  actinic 
powers. 

Frequently  it  is  desired  to  take  a  photograph 
of  an  interior  which,  by  reason  of  a  lack  of  illu- 
mination, or  because  some  window  which  can- 
not be  covered  comes  within  range  of  the  cam- 
era, is  impracticable  by  daylight.  In  such  cases 
a  charge  of  flash  powder  solves  the  problem. 

85 


86 

Again,  it  is  desired  to  photograph  a  very  large 
room  which  is  lighted  from  only  one  side  by 
daylight.  To  get  a  full  time  exposure  in  the 
darkest  corner  of  the  room  would  cause  a  de- 


FiG.  54. 


cided  overexposure  near  the  windows.  A  flash 
of  powder,  concealed  from  direct  line  with  the 
lens  by  some  article  of  furniture  or  by  a  screen, 
illuminates  the  dark  corner  and  gives  a  prop- 


8; 


erly  lighted  exposure  of  the  entire  room.  These 
are  the  ordinary  uses  of  the  flashlight,  and  by 
following  the  simple  rules  laid  down  the  ama- 
teur can  make  pictures  with  as  great  an  assur- 
ance of  success  as  when  making  snapshots  out 
of  doors.  For  the  production  of  unusual  effects, 
however,  one  must  study  all  the  conditions, 
weighing  carefully  cause  and  effect,  and  must 
not  yield  to  disappointment  if  success  be  not  at- 
tained at  first.  There  are  many  ways  in  which 
the  flash  may  be  made  to  co-operate  with  other 
artificial  light,  or  with  daylight,  to  produce  a 
unique  or  artistic  effect,  and  to  the  serious 
worker  it  offers  another  means  to  the  end  most 
desired  by  all  photographic  workers — pictorial 
effect. 

Flash  powders  are  put  up  in  three  ways :  In 
bottled  form  for  use  in  the  ^flash  lamp,  in  cart- 
ridges having  fuses  and  requiring  no  extras,  and 
in  flash  sheets,  which  are  used  by  simply  pin- 
ning them  up  against  a  cardboard  on  the  wall 
and  igniting  the  lower  corner. 

The  same  general  rules  will  apply  whether  the 
lamp,  the  cartridge  or  the  flash  sheet  be  used. 

Preparation  of  the  Flashlight. — The  light 
should  always  be  placed  two  feet  behind  and  two 
to  three  feet  to  one  side  of  the  camera.  If  placed 
in  front  of  or  on  a  line  with  the  front  of  camera, 
the  flash  would  strike  the  lens  and  blur  the  pic- 
ture. It  should  be  placed  at  one  side  as  well  as 
behind,  so  as  to  throw  a  shadow  and  give  a  little 
relief  in  lighting.  The  flash  should  be  at  the 
same  height  or  a  little  higher  than  the  camera. 
A  piece  of  cardboard  a  foot  square  placed  under 
the  powder  will  prevent  any  sparks  from  the 
flash  doing  damage.  A  sheet  of  white  cardboard 


88 


set  up  behind  the  flash  will  act  as  a  reflector  and 
increase  the  strength  of  the  picture. 

Taking  the  Picture. — Having  the  camera  and 
the  powder  both  in  position,  the  camera  should 
be  set  shutter  open,  as  for  a  time  exposure,  but 
the  stop  ordinarily  employed  for  snapshots 
should  be  employed.  When  the  powder  is  ig- 
nited there  will  be  a  bright  flash,  w^hich  will  in- 
stantly impress  the  picture  on  the  Sensitive  film. 
Then  close  the  shutter. 

The  Powder. — The  amount  of  powder  re- 
quired to  light  a  room  varies  with  the  distance 
of  the  object  farthest  away  from  the  camera  and 
the  color  of  the  walls  and  hangings. 

TABLE. 

For  lo  feet  distance  and  light  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  I  cartridge  No.  2,  i  even  teaspoonful ;  I 
flash  sheet. 

For  10  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  2  cartridges  No.  2,  2  even  teaspoonfuls ; 
2  flash  sheets. 

For  15  feet  distance  and  light  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  2  cartridges  No.  2,  2  even  teaspoonfuls ; 

2  flash  sheets. 

For  15  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  3  cartridges  No.  2,  3  even  teaspoonfuls ; 

3  flash  sheets. 

For  25  feet  distance  and  light  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  3  cartridges  No.  2,  3  even  teaspoonfuls; 

3  flash  sheets. 

For  25  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  and  hang- 
ings, use  4  cartridges  No.  2,  4  even  teaspoonfuls ; 

4  flash  sheets. 

Note. — The  No.  i  cartridges  hold  50  per  cent 
more  powder  and  the  No.  3  about  half  as  much 
as  the  No.  2,  and  should  be  used  accordingly. 


89 


Portraits. — Place  the  sitter  in  a  chair  partly 
facing  the  camera  (which  should  be  at  the  height 
of  an  ordinary  table),  and  turn  the  face  slightly 
towards  the  camera.  The  proper  distance  from 
the  camera  to  the  subject  can  be  ascertained  by 
looking  at  the  image  in  the  finder. 

The  powder  should  be  on  the  side  of  the  cam- 
era away  from  the  face — that  is,  the  sitter  should 
not  face  the  flash. 

Groups. — Arrange  the  chairs  in  the  form  of  a 
semi-circle,  facing  the  camera,  so  that  each  chair 
will  be  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  cam- 
era. Half  the  persons  composing  the  group 
should  be  seated  and  the  rest  should  stand  be- 
hind the  chairs.  In  case  any  of  the  subjects  are 
seated  on  the  floor  the  limbs  should  be  drawn 
up  close  to  the  body,  not  extended  towards  the 
camera. 

The  Background. — In  making  single  portraits 
or  groups  care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  suit- 
able background  against  which  the  figures  will 
show  in  relief ;  a  light  background  is  better  than 
a  dark  one,  and  often  a  single  figure  or  two  will 
show  up  well  against  a  lace  curtain.  For  larger 
groups  a  medium  light  will  be  suitable. 

The  finder  on  the  camera  will  help  the  oper- 
ator to  compose  the  group  so  as  to  get  the  best 
effect.  In  order  to  make  the  image  visible  in  the 
finder  the  room  should  be  well  lighted  with  ordi- 
nary lamplight,  which  may  be  left  on  while  the 
picture  is  being  made,  provided  none  of  the 
lights  are  so  placed  that  they  show  in  the  finder, 
or  if  a  focusing  camera  is  used  employ  the 
ground  glass  screen  in  the  usual  manner. 

When  Using  Flash  Cartridges. — Remove  the 
cover  from  the  cartridge  and  place  it  upon  a 
cardboard.   All  being  in  readiness,  as  before  de- 


90 


scribed,  open  the  camera  shutter,  ignite  the  fuse 
while  at  arm's  length,  protecting  the  eyes  in  the 
meantime  from  the  brilliant  flash.  Close  the 
camera  shutter. 

If  two  cartridges  are  to  be  used  the  contents 
of  one  of  them  can  be  poured  into  the  other, 
care  being  taken,  however,  that  if  any  of  the 
powder  spills  over  it  does  not  lie  in  such 
a  position  as  to  practically  shorten  the  fuse. 

Fuses  used  on  these  cartridges  are  very  quick. 

When  Using  Flash  Sheets. — Pin  a  flash  sheet 
by  one  corner  to  a  piece  of  cardboard  which  has 
previously  been  fixed  in  a  perpendicular  position. 
If  the  cardboard  is  white  it  will  act  as  a  reflector 
and  increase  the  strength  of  the  picture.  All  be- 
ing in  readiness,  as  before  described,  open  the 
camera  shutter,  stand  at  arm's  length  and  touch 
a  match  to  the  lower  corner  of  the  flash  sheet. 

Close  the  camera  shutter. 

When  two  or  more  sheets  are  to  be  used  they 
should  be  pinned  to  the  cardboard,  one  above 
the  other,  the  corners  slightly  overlapping. 

As  a  matter  of  precaution,  place  a  piece  of 
cardboard  beneath  as  well  as  one  behind  the 
flash  sheet,  so  that  in  case  a  piece  of  burning 
powder  should  fall  it  will  do  no  injury. 

In  General. — In  portrait  work  it  is  always  best 
to  have  the  room  well  lighted  when  making  the 
flash,  if  it  can  be  done  in  such  a  way  that  none 
of  the  lights  come  within  the  range  of  the  lens. 
If  the  room  is  darkened  the  sudden  flash  of  the 
powder  so  strains  the  eyes  of  the  sitters  that  it 
almost  invariably  gives  them  a  staring  look, 
whereas  if  the  room  is  already  well  illuminated 
by  gas  or  lamplight  the  strain  is  not  great  and 
the  eyes  will  have  a  natural  expression.  Of 
course,  where  the  room  is  brightly  lighted  the 


shutter  should  not  be  opened  until  the  instant 
before  the  flash  is  made,  and  should  be  closed 
quickly  after  the  flash  is  over. 

When  more  than  one  flashlight  is  to  be  taken 
the  windows  should  be  opened  and  time  allowed 
between  each  flash  to  free  the  room  thoroughly 
from  smoke,  otherwise  all  of  the  pictures  after 
the  first  one  are  liable  to  have  a  ''foggy"  effect. 
Good  flash  powders  give  a  minimum  of  smoke, 
but  the  lens  is  even  keener  than  the  eye,  and 
what  will  seem  to  be  but  little  smoke  in  a  room 
will  oftentimes  have  a  decided  effect  upon  the 
picture. 

When,  for  any  reason,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
shutter  remain  closed  until  the  instant  the  flash 
is  discharged  and  be  closed  again  instantly  after- 
ward, it  is  well  to  use  a  flash  lamp,  as  by  so 
doing  the  shutter  can  be  operated  with  one  hand 
and  the  flash  with  the  other,  and  their  action 
thus  made  simultaneous. 

In  using  the  flash  sheets  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  they  are  not  instantaneous,  and  in  por- 
trait work  the  subjects  should,  therefore,  be 
warned  to  remain  still  the  same  as  if  for  a  time 
exposure.  For  photographing  young  children  or 
large  groups  these  sheets  are  not  recommended, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the 
subjects  quiet  during  exposure.  About  one  and 
one-half  seconds  are  consumed  in  burning  a  sin- 
gle sheet,  and  the  light  is  much  less  brilliant 
than  is  the  instantaneous  flash.  This  is  a  decided 
advantage  where  the  subjects  can  be  depended 
upon  to  keep  quiet,  as  the  eyes  are  not  strained 
by  the  flash  and  do  not  have  the  staring  effect 
so  often  seen  in  flashlight  pictures. 

Secondary  Uses  of  the  Flashlight. — The  ama- 
teur ambitious  of  securing  pictorial  effects  will 


92 


often  find  an  opportunity  to  use  the  flash  in  con- 
nection with  some  other  light,  either  artificial 
or  daylight.  Fig.  54,  at  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter,  shows  a  picture  taken  in  one  of  the 
Eastman  Kodak  Company's  dark  rooms  by 
means  of  the  flash  in  conjunction  with  the  in- 
candescent lights.  In  the  dark  room  these  lights 
are  covered  with  orange  paper,  but  for  this  occa- 
sion the  paper  was  removed  from  one  side,  so 
that  a  strong  light  would  be  thrown  upon  each 
operator  as  he  stood  at  his  developing  tray.  Two 
charges  of  flash  powder  of  about  one  thimbleful 
each  were  then  arranged,  one  near  the  camera 
and  the  other"  behind  a  screen  about  half  way 
down  the  room.  The  subjects  being  posed,  two 
minutes'  exposure  was  given  by  the  electric 
lights,  followed  by  the  firing  of  two  small 
charges  of  flash  powder  to  bring  out  just  a  trifle 
of  detail  in  the  shadows.  To  the  eyes  of  those 
familiar  with  the  gloom  of  the  dark  room  this 
picture  is  strikingly  effective,  especially  when 
the  lights  and  high  lights  are  given  an  orange 
tint. 

The  portrait  of  the  well-fed  monk,  entitled 
''Come  We  to  This?"  (See  Fig.  55)  is  another 
illustration  of  what  can  be  accomplished  through 
a  combination  of  artificial  lights.  After  arrang- 
ing the  subject  and  accessories  a  bicycle  lamp, 
put  inside  a  box  which  stood  between  the  skull 
and  scroll,  was  so  placed  that  it  threw  a  pow- 
erful light  on  the  subject's  face,  and  was  in  a 
line  toward  the  candle.  'After  two  minutes'  ex- 
posure the  box  and  lamp  were  quickly  removed, 
the  candle  lighted,  a  weak  flashlight  made  and 
the  shutter  closed. 

These  two  illustrations  are  given  merely  to 
show  the  possibilities  of  producing  pictorial  re- 


93 

suits  by  a  combination  of  the  flash  with  other 
artificial  lights.  They  will  suggest  to  the  ama- 
teur many  ways  in  which  this  light  can  be  util- 
ized in  producing  artistic  effects — the  light  from 


Fig.  55. 


a  reading  lamp,  or  from  the  grate  fire,  the  light 
from  the  moon — can  all  be  made  to  work  in  such 
harmony  with  the  flash  as  to  produce  photo- 
graphs which  are  not  only  unusual  and  novel 


94 


but  have  also  a  lifelikeness  and  fidelity  to  nature 
that  make  them  pictures.  The  flashlight  is  one 
more  agent  that  assists  in  making  the  photog- 
rapher the  master  of  his  camera.  Having  con- 
trol, not  only  of  his  lens,  shutter  and  chemicals, 
but  of  the  source  and  volume  of  his  light,  his 
v^ork  becomes  creative,  and  even  the  devotees  of 
palette  and  brush  must  acknowledge,  if  his  re- 
sults are  pictorial,  that  he  is  an  artist,  not  a 
*'mere  copyist." 

Warning!  Where  Using  a  Flashlight  Lamp 
always  turn  the  burner  away  from  the  flash  pan 
when  the  latter  is  being  filled. 

Never  fill  the  pan  when  the  burner  is  lighted 
and  toward  the  pan. 

Never  light  the  burner  when  it  is  over  the 
powder. 

Never  pour  the  powder  from  the  bottle  di- 
rectly into  the  pan. 

Always  use  spoon  or  measuring  cup. 

Never  hold  bulb  in  hand  when  turning  burner 
over  powder.  An  accidental  squeeze  of  bulb 
would  discharge  the  flash. 

Never  use  flashlight  powder  in  magazine 
lamps. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


MISCELLANEOUS  BRANCHES  OF  PHO- 
TOGRAPHY. 

Snapshots  and  Instantaneous  Photography.— 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  misconception  in  the 
public  mind  with  regard  to  what  is  called  instan- 
taneous photography.  Many  people  seem  to 
consider  that  it  is  quite  a  distinct  invention,  and 
that  it  requires  a  peculiar  set  of  apparatus.  It  is 
not  so.  If  you  possess  a  lens  which  is  sufficient- 
ly perfect  to  enable  you  to  use  a  large  aperture 
without  seriously  impairing  its  defining  powers, 
and  you  use  a  rapid  plate,  you  will  simply  re- 
quire a  mechanical  contrivance  to  uncover  the 
lens  and  cover  it  up  again  very  quickly,  in  order 
to  blossom  out  as  a  full-blown  instantaneous 
photographer,  only  you  must  confine  yourself  to 
brilliantly  lighted  subjects.  It  is  here  that  the 
difference  lies.  An  instantaneous  photograph 
can  only  be  taken  in  a  good  light. 

There  is  a  strong  temptation  towards  indis- 
criminate snapshotting  when  using  a  hand  cam- 
era, for  a  new  plate  is  so  easily  brought  into  po- 
sition and  exposed  that  the  user  is  often  inclined 
to  waste  it  on  an  unworthy  subject.  Care  and 
thought  should  always  be  bestowed  upon  every 
photograph  that  is  taken,  whether  it  be  an  8xio 
landscape  or  a  4x5  snapshot,  and  the  knowledge 
which  has  been  gained  in  landscape  and  similar 
work  should  be  applied  to  the  apparently  much 
simpler  hand  camera  photography.  A  street 
scene  can  only  be  successfully  taken  in  the 


95 


96 


brightest  hours  near  noon,  because  it  contains  all 

those  elements — heavy  shadows  in  the  fore- 
ground, etc. — -which  in  landscape  work  necessitate 
a  longer  exposure,  and  as  in  this  case  the  time 
cannot  be  drawn  out  because  of  the  moving  ob- 
jects in  the  picture,  the  other  factor — light — 
must  be  increased  in  compensation.  Out  in  the 
country,  however,  where  the  light  is  not  partially 
absorbed  by  a  heavy  pall  of  smoke,  those  pleas- 
ing little  studies  of  children  and  ''grown-ups'* 
and  of  pastoral  life  generally,  of  which  the  hand 
camera  is  such  an  excellent  portrayer,  may  be 
successfully  attempted  in  spring  or  autumn, 
while  sea  and  sky  effects — the  brightest  things 
in  nature — can  be  photographed  in  midwinter, 
and  even  skating  scenes,  when  the  sun  is  shin- 
ing, and  there  is  plenty  of  snow  about  to  reflect 
its  light,  come  just  within  the  scope  of  the  hand 
camera  bearer. 

The  two  great  things  to  bear  in  mind  when 
contemplating  instantaneous  exposures  are : 
Hold  the  camera  perfectly  still,  for  the  least 
tremor  is  disastrous,  and  be  quite  sure  there  is 
sufficient  light  upon  the  subject.  Then  with 
rapid  plates  and  a  quick  lens  and  an  eye  well 
enough  trained  to  choose  a  good  position,  a  good 
subject,  and  to  seize  the  right  moment  for  ex- 
posure, a  satisfactory  photograph  can  hardly  fail 
to  result. 

Photographing  Moving  Objects. — There  is 
probably  nothing  in  picture  taking  in  which  the 
amateur  asks  more  unreasonable  things  than  in 
the  making  of  snapshots  of  rapidly  moving  ob- 
jects. If,  for  instance,  he  is  an  enthusiastic  bi- 
cyclist, he  takes  his  camera  to  the  first  race  meet, 
secures  a  position  alongside  the  tape,  and  as  the 
riders  finish,  sprinting  at  a  i  40  clip,  he  takes  a 


97 


broadside  of  them  from  a  distance  of  ten  feet 
and  is  disappointed  in  the  resulting  blur,  for  he 
has  nothing  else.  Now,  let  us  see  the  reason 
for  this. 

If  he  has  a  double  lens  instrument  with  pneu- 
matic shutter  it  has  worked  in  approximately 
1-50  of  a  second,  an  apparently  very  short  space 
of  time,  but  we  find  on  figuring  it  out  that  a  bi- 
cyclist riding  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  in  one  minute 
forty  seconds  covers  52.8  feet  in  a  second,  or  over 
twelve  inches  in  1-50  of  a  second,  the  time  the 
shutter  is  open — a  sufficient  distance  to  ruin  the 
image.  The  distance  the  image  will  move  on  the 
plate  during  exposure  is  to  the  distance  the  ob- 
ject moves,  as  the  focal  length  of  lens  is  to  dis- 
tance from  lens  to  object.  In  this  case  we  will 
suppose  the  focus  of  lens  to  be  six  inches,  and 
we  know  the  distance  from  lens  to  object  to 
be  ten  feet  (120  inches)  and  the  distance  the  ob- 
ject moves  approximately  twelve  inches.  We 
will  let  X  stand  for  distance  image  moves  on  the 
plate  and  it  gives  us  the  following  equation: 
X  :  12  :  :  6  :  120  —  6-10.  Of  course,  the  object 
moving  6-10  of  an  inch  on  the  plate  ruins  the  ^ 
picture.  We  find  then  that  in  order  to  take 
pictures  of  moving  objects  at  right  angles  there 
are  two  factors  of  prime  importance — the  speed 
of  shutter  and  the  distance  from  the  object. 
In  the  ordinary  amateur  outfit  the  shutter  speed 
cannot  be  materially  increased  and  he  must  there- 
fore take  the  picture  from  further  away.  Ex- 
periment has  proven  that  in  order  to  successfully 
take  pictures  of  rapidly  moving  horses,  etc.,  from 
a  position  near  by  and  at  right  angles  the  shutter 
must  work  in  from  1-500  to  i-iooo  of  a  second 
(Muybridge  claimed  to  have  used  a  shutter  work- 
ing in  1-2000  of  a  second)  and  this  extreme  speed 


98 

necessitates  a  special  camera  and  lens  as  well 
as  a  special  shutter,  and  then  the  resulting  photo- 
graphs are  mere  silhouettes,  because  with  the 
present  speed  of  plates  and  films  there  is  not 
time  to  get  any  detail.  But  there  are  tricks  in 
all  trades  and  satisfactory  pictures  of  rapidly 
moving  objects  can  be  readily  made  by  photo- 
graphing them  from  partly  in  front  as  well  as 
from  a  reasonable  distance.  The  accompanying 
picture  (Fig.  56),  a  railroad  train  moving  at  full 
speed,  shows  plainly  what  can  be  done  in  this 


Fig.  56. 


direction.  It  was  made  with  a  small  kodak  and 
is  a  good  illustration  of  what  can  be  accom- 
plished by  taking  the  picture  from  a  point  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  object  and  also 
somewhat  ahead  of  it.  By  acting  on  this  hint 
the  amateur  can  soon  learn  to  take  pictures  of 
rapidly  moving  objects,  and  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  avoid  materially  the  disagreeable  effect  of 
blurring. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  COMPLETION  OF 
THE  NEGATIVE. 

Equipment  and  Arrangement  of  the  Dark 
Room.— As  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter, 
the  process  of  developing  the  negative  has  to 
be  carried  on  by  the  aid  of  the  light  from  a  ruby- 
lamp,  and  since  all  other  light  must  be  excluded 
the  room  w^hich  is  devoted  to  this  work  is  usually 
termed  the  ''dark  room."  If  the  reader  is  for- 
tunate enough  to  possess  a  spare  room  at  home, 
which  can  be  set  apart  solely  for  photographic 
operations,  his  path  of  progress  will  be  rendered 
considerably  more  comfortable  than  if  he  has 
to  develop  his  negatives  when  and  where  he  can. 
It  is  quite  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  any  cup- 
board will  do  for  the  dark  room,  even  if  it  is 
big  enough  for  the  photographer  to  get  inside. 
Unless  the  work  can  be  done  comfortably,  it 
is  hardly  likely  to  be  satisfactory,  and  therefore 
it  is  much  the  best  policy  to  select  a  room  where 
both  fresh  air  and  elbow  space  exist  in  plenty.  If 
the  amateur  has  a  room  which  he  can  devote  en- 
tirely to  photography,  he  will  find  the  following 
items  of  furniture  and  fittings  useful : 

A  table  on  which  to  do  the  developing,  though 
better  still  than  this  would  be  a  specially-made 
developing  sink ;  a  cupboard  or  chest  of  drawers, 
in  which  to  keep  his  stock  of  plates,  papers  and 
various  pieces  of  apparatus ;  and  a  set  of  shelves 
fixed  on  the  wall,  close  to  the  developing  table 
or  sink,  on  which  should  be  placed  bottles  of  the 


99 


100 


various  chemicals  and  solutions  required  for  de- 
velopment. If  gas  is  available,  the  burner 
bracket  should  be  fixed  just  over  the  develop- 
ing table;  and  if  the  convenience  of  a  continu- 
ous water  supply  is  also  to  be  had  the  tap  should 
be  in  an  equally  handy  position.  If  a  continu- 
ous water  supply  is  not  available  a  small  tank 
fixed  to  the  wall  above  the  sink  may  be  made 
to  answer  the  purpose.  Failing  this,  a  bucket 
or  large  jug  of  fresh  water  should  be  kept  at 
hand. 

If  a  separate  photographic  room  is  not  at  the 
operator's  command,  the  next  best  in  order  of 
convenience  is  the  bathroom,  and  an  excellent 
substitute  it  makes.  In  either  case  daylight  may 
be  excluded  by  a  light  structure  of  wood  of  such 
a  size  as  to  just  fit  into  the  frame  of  the  window, 
and  covered  with  some  opaque  material.  I  say 
opaque,  for  even  in  the  daytime  it  is  better  to 
develop  by  artificial  light,  as  daylight  is  continu- 
ally varying  in  intensity,  and  thus  makes  it  dif- 
ficult to  judge  the  density  of  the  negatives.  If, 
however,  the  reader  prefers  to  work  by  daylight 
he  can  secure  a  fairly  safe  light  by  substituting 
for  the  opaque  material  two  thicknesses  of  col- 
ored fabric,  one  thickness  being  a  ruby  color  and 
the  other  a  deep  canary  or  orange.  If  this  plan 
be  adopted  the  screen  thus  made  should  be  as 
little  exposed  to  sunlight  as  possible,  otherwise 
the  color  will  rapidly  deteriorate,  and  the  screen 
will  be  thereby  rendered  unsafe.  Such  a  screen 
should  be  tested  from  time  to  time. 

Having  thus  prevented  the  admission  of  white 
light  through  the  window,  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  door,  and  any  stray  light  finding  its 
way  through  the  keyhole  or  crevices  should  be 
promptly  checked  by  brown  paper.  While,  how- 


lOI 


ever,  the  room  should  be  made  perfectly  light- 
tight,  it  should  not  be  air  tight,  for  unless  the 
bad  air  is  permitted  to  escape  and  be  replaced 
by  pure  air  the  atmosphere  will  soon  become  op- 
pressive and  even  injurious. 

In  the  event  of  neither  of  the  above-mentioned 
rooms  being  available,  the  amateur  must  make 
the  best  of  the  accommodation  afforded  by  one 
of  the  ordinary  rooms  of  the  house.  In  such 
case,  of  course,  he  must  exercise  especial  care 
and  cleanliness  in  handling  his  various  solutions, 
so  as  not  to  damage  the  carpet  or  furniture. 

The  Choice  of  a  Developer. — A  ''developer" 
may  be  defined  as  a  chemical  solution  which, 
when  applied  to  a  plate  which  has  been  suitably 
exposed  in  the  camera,  will  bring  out  or  make 
visible  the  image  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
light  on  the  silver  bromide  in  the  sensitive  emul- 
sion with  which  the  plate  is  covered.  That 
image  is  invisible  until  the  plate  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  the  developer,  so  that 
when  the  amateur  removes  his  exposed  plates 
from  the  plate  holder  they  will  appear  precisely 
the  same  as  when  first  placed  in  the  holder  ready 
for  exposure.  In  making  the  image  visible,  what 
the  developer  really  does  is  to  reduce  the  opaque 
metallic  silver — those  parts  of  the  silver  bromide 
which  have  been  affected  by  the  light — and  to 
leave  unaltered  those  portions  upon  which  the 
light  has  not  acted.  When  the  plate  has  been 
developed,  and  the  latent  image  has  been  brought 
out,  it  has  to  be  "fixed'*  before  it  can  safely  be 
allowed  to  make  an  appearance  in  daylight  again. 
Immediately  the  plate  has  been  developed  it  is 
subjected  to  a  short  washing  in  clean  water  and 
is  then  immersed  in  a  ''fixing''  bath.  After  hav- 
ing been  "fixed"  the  plate  is  unaffected  in  any 


102 


further  way  by  exposure  to  light,  and  all  that 
remains  to  be  done  is  to  thoroughly  wash  it  and 
let  it  dry. 

But  this  explanation  is  carrying  me  ahead  of 
my  subject,  for  my  present  purpose  is  to  indicate 
the  nature  and  uses  of  the  various  developing 
agents  commonly  employed.  This  information 
may,  perhaps,  best  be  imparted  in  the  following 
form : 

Amidol. — This  developer  is  chiefly  used  for  two 
classes  of  work;  snap-shot  negatives  and  devel- 
oping papers.  It  is  very  energetic  in  its  action 
and  is  a  good  developer  for  bringing  out  detail. 
When  used  for  bromide  papers  no  clearing  bath 
is  required. 

Eikonogen. — Very  suitable  for  snap-shots  and 
for  portrait  negatives.  It  is,  however,  but  slight- 
ly soluble  in  water,  and  is,  therefore,  usually 
made  up  in  quantity.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  ob- 
tain full  density  with  this  developer  unless  very 
pure  crystals  are  employed  and  the  exposure 
of  the  plate  has  been  reasonably  correct.  If  com- 
bined with  a  density-giving  developer,  such  as 
quinol,  good  results  may  be  secured. 

Ferrous  Oxalate. — This  is  a  developer  which 
at  one  time  was  very  popular  for  negatives,  but 
of  late  has  been  largely  superseded  by  other 
substances.  To  secure  the  best  results  the  ex- 
posure of  the  negative  must  be  as  nearly  correct 
as  possible. 

Glycin.— ^This  is  a  slow  developer,  giving  gray- 
black  images  free  from  fog.  It  is  much  used 
for  negatives  for  photo-mechanical  processes. 

Hydroquinone  or  Quinol. — This  developer  is  a 
great  favorite  among  amateurs  on  account  of  the 
cleanliness  and  ease  with  which  it  may  be  used. 
It  gives  blackish  negatives  and  may  be  used 


I03 

repeatedly  until  exhausted.  It  is  liable  to  pro- 
duce harsh  contrasts  with  an  insufficiency  of  de- 
tail, and  is  slower  in  operation  than  some  of  the 
other  developing  agents.  It  is  very  suitable  for 
bromide  papers. 

Metol. — Metol  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  of 
modern  developers  and  with  short  exposures  pro- 
duces negatives  of  extreme  softness.  A  com- 
bination of  metol  and  hydroquinone  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  developer. 

Pyrogallic  or  Pyro. — Of  all  developers  this  is 
the  one  which  is  most  widely  known  and  has 
the  longest  reputation.  By  suitably  modifying 
the  constituents  of  the  solution  employed,  pyro 
enables  excellent  negatives  to  be  obtained,  even 
in  cases  where  the  exposure  has  been  far  from 
correct,  and  in  the  hands  of  an  intelligent  user 
this  power  becomes  of  considerable  value  and 
importance.  Further  than  this,  it  is  fairly  rapid 
in  its  action,  any  amount  of  density  can  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  resultant  negatives  are  of  good 
printing  quality.  As  an  all-round  developer  for 
negatives  pyro  is  still  without  a  superior. 

Rodinal. — Another  name  under  which  rodinal 
is  sometimes  sold  is  paramidophenol.  It  is 
chiefly  used  for  developing  hand  camera  nega- 
tives; but,  while  it  brings  out  plenty  of  detail, 
there  is  occasionally  trouble  in  obtaining  satis- 
factory density.  It  is  also  a  useful  developer 
for  bromide  papers. 

Agents. — The  chemical  substances  mentioned  in 
the  above  list  are  termed  ^'agents,"  and  are  not 
used  by  themselves  to  produce  development,  but 
are  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  a  substance 
termed  the  "alkali,"  and  with  a  bromide  termed 
the  ''restrained''  The  various  portions  of  agent, 
alkali  and  restrainer  are  dissolved  in  a  suitable 


ID4 

amount  of  water  to  form  the  developing  solu- 
tion. Where  these  are  all  mixed  together  the 
developer  thus  formed  is  termed  a  ''one-solution" 
developer.  As,  however,  modifications  in  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  constituents  will  en- 
abl-e  the  operator  to  produce  corresponding 
modifications  in  the  character  of  the  resulting 
negative,  it  is  often  a  convenience  to  have  two 
solutions  mixed  up,  one  containing  the  agent 
and  the  other  the  alkali.  Then,  by  taking  more 
of  the  one  solution  and  less  of  the  other,  or  vice 
versa,  the  development  of  the  negative  may  be 
had  more  fully  under  control.  Thus  the  rate  of 
development  may  be  hastened  or  retarded,  and 
the  contrasts  in  the  negative  accordingly  in- 
creased or  diminished.  At  the  present  moment 
the  reader  may  not  fully  understand  the  sig- 
nificance of  these  facts,  but  the  matter  will  be 
made  clearer  to  him  when  I  come  to  deal  with 
the  actual  process  of  development.  From  the 
list  of  developing  agents  which  I  have  just  given 
the  reader  will  see  that  he  has  a  pretty  wide 
field  from  which  to  choose.  With  a  developer, 
as  with  the  particular  brand  of  plate,  once  the 
selection  has  been  made  it  should  be  adhered 
to  and  its  capabilities  and  peculiarities  thorough- 
ly mastered.  Now,  different  makers  of  plates 
recommend  diflferent  formulae  for  development, 
even  though  the  same  constituents  may  be  em- 
ployed in  each,  and  whatever  the  brand  of  plates 
selected,  while  the  general  facts  will  still  hold 
good,  the  particular  formulae  recommended  by 
the  makers  of  those  plates  should  be  adhered 
to  when  mixing  the  developer. 

How  to  Mix  the  Developer. — ^The  various 
chemicals  of  which  the  developers  are  com- 
posed are  usually  supplied  in  powders  or  crystals, 


I05 


and  they  should  be  stored  in  glass  bottles,  with 
close-fitting  corks.  India  rubber  corks  should  al- 
ways be  used  in  the  case  of  potash  or  soda.  Each 
bottle  should  be  carefully  and  accurately  labeled 
with  the  name  of  the  substance  contained  there- 
in, and  the  label  should  be  as  far  as  possible  in- 
destructible. That  is,  the  inscription  should  be 
either  sand-blasted  onto  the  glass  or  should  be 
written  on  a  gummed  label,  which  should  be 
afterwards  sized  and  varnished.  No  chemical  or 
solution  should  be  placed  in  a  bottle  which  has 
previously  contained  another  substance,  unless 
the  bottle  has  first  been  thoroughly  washed  out. 
On  no  account  should  any  solution  be  poured 
into  a  labelless  bottle,  as  the  amateur  will  almost 
certainly  forget  just  what  the  composition  of 
the  solution  was,  and  when  that  is  the  case,  it  is 
useless  to  him.  If  space  is  limited,  developers 
may  be  purchased  in  the  form  of  powders.  These 
developing  powders  are  put  up  in  small  pack- 
ages, occupying  very  little  room,  and  when  a 
developing  solution  is  required  it  is  simply  neces- 
sary to  dissolve  one  or  more  powders  in  water, 
according  to  instructions. 

The  dissolving  of  solid  substances  in  water 
may  be  hastened  by  two  methods:  Firstly,  by 
crushing  the  substance  into  a  powder  or  very 
small  pieces,  and  secondly,  by  using  hot  water 
instead  of  cold.  The  solution  should,  however, 
always  be  allowed  to  cool  before  it  is  used  to 
develop  with,  otherwise  the  film  of  the  plate  will 
be  injuriously  affected. 

How  to  Develop  a  Negative. — I  will  now  as- 
sume that  the  reader  has  exposed  a  plate  in  the 
camera,  and  that  he  is  ready  to  make  his  first 
essay  at  development.  I  will  further  assume 
he  has  prepared  the  solutions  required  according 


io6 

to  the  special  instructions  contained  in  the  pack- 
age of  dry  plates  that  he  has  used,  or  according 
to  some  one  of  the  formulae  given  in  this  chap- 
ter, or  that  possibly  he  has  obtained  his  so- 
lution ready  prepared  from  a  stock  dealer.  He 
must  then  proceed  as  follows :  Light  the  ruby 
lamp  and  place  the  developing  dish  about  twelve 
inches  in  front,  or  at  such  a  distance  as  you  can 
just  see  what  you  are  doing.  Next  open  the 
plate-holder,  take  out  the  exposed  plate,  and  after 
lightly  brushing  it  with  a  flat  camel's  hair  brush 
to  remove  any  particles  of  dust  place  it  film  side 
uppermost  in  the  developing  dish.  Then,  with 
a  steady,  sweeping  motion,  pour  the  developer 
over  the  surface  of  the  plate.  It  is  absolutely 
essential  that  the  developer  should  cover  the 
whole  plate  and  that  no  air  bubbles  should  be 
allowed  to  remain,  otherwise  the  negative  will 
be  disfigured  by  markings  due  to  unequal  de- 
velopment. No  signs  of  the  picture  will  appear 
for  about  a  minute  or  so,  but  the  dish  should  be 
gently  rocked  during  this  period  to  keep  the  de- 
veloper in  motion.  If  the  exposure  has  been 
about  correct  the  plate  will  then  gradually  darken 
in  places.  Now  watch^closely.  The  development 
of  an  exposed  dry  plate  is  a  process  which  cannot 
fail  to  deeply  interest  the  most  careless  person. 
As  the  first  faint  outlines  appear,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  developer,  wonder  grows  into  amaze- 
ment at  the  change  going  on  under  one's  very 
eyes.  Outlines  of  familiar  objects  come  out,  as 
first  the  mast,  then  the  hull,  then  the  rigging  and 
the  cords  of  a  great  vessel  comes  to  us  from  out 
the  dimness  of  a  fog. 

In  a  portrait  the  white  shirt  front  and 
collar  will  first  appear,  to  be  quickly  followed 
by   the   face.    The   reader   should  remember 


107 


that  in  a  negative  everything  is  reversed — 
that  is,  a  white  collar  comes  out  black,  w^hile  a 
black  hat  will  show  white,  or  rather  almost 
clear  glass,  in  the  finished  negative.  This  being 
clearly  borne  in  mind,  the  reader  will  be  better 
able  to  follow  the  progress  of  the  development. 
After  the  whitest  portions  of  a  picture,  or  the 
''high  lights,''  as  they  are  termed,  have  appeared, 
they  will  be  followed  by  the  half-tones,  and  ulti- 
mately by  the  shadows.  If  the  picture  appears 
gradually,  in  these  successive  stages,  the  develop- 
ment should  be  allowed  to  continue  until  all  the 
details  are  fully  brought  out.  If  the  plate  is 
then  held  up  to  the  ruby  lamp  and  examined  the 
high  lights  should  be  nearly  opaque,  while  the 
deepest  shadows  should  be  transparent,  but 
should  clearly  show  the  details.  In  a  landscape, 
for  example,  the  opaque  part  should  be  the  sky, 
or  the  side  of  a  whitewashed  cottage,  while  the 
transparent  part  should  be  in  heavy  foliage  on 
trees  or  bushes,  but  the  leaves  and  branches  visi- 
ble in  the  negative ;  i.  e.,  the  deepest  shadows 
should  not  appear  as  absolutely  unaltered  patches 
of  the  film.  The  edges  of  the  plate  which  have 
been  held  by  the  rebate  of  the  plate-holder  will, 
of  course,  remain  perfectly  white,  and  it  is  a 
fairly  safe  rule  to  continue  development  until 
every  part  of  the  plate  which  has  been  exposed 
turns  slightly  gray,  while  the  edges  remain 
clear  white. 

The  moment  these  edges  show  any  signs  of 
becoming  gray,  the  plate  should  be  removed 
from  the  developer  and  washed.  With  most 
plates  there  is  another  means  of  ascertaining 
if  development  has  been  carried  far  enough,  and 
this  is  to  examine  the  negative  from  the  glass 
side,  or  back,  by  reflected  light.    If  the  develop- 


io8 

ment  is  sufficient  the  high  lights  and  the  less 
deep  half-tones  will  be  visible  from  this  side. 
Until  the  development  has  been  completed  the 
dish  should  be  rocked  from  time  to  time  as  men- 
tioned. 

After  the  plate  has  been  developed  it  should 
be  v^ashed  under  the  tap,  or  in  a  dish  of  clean 
water,  and  should  then  be  immersed  in  a  fixing- 
bath,  composed  as  follows: 

Hyposulphite  of  soda. .  i6  ozs.  or  20  parts 

Water  up  to  80  ozs.  or  100  parts 

Hyposulphite  of  soda  is  commonly  referred  to 
as  "hypo." 

The  above  quantity  of  solution  will  serve  for 
fixing  a  large  number  of  plates,  and  if  only  a 
small  quantity  is  required  for  a  few  plates  it 
can  be  easily  mixed,  provided  the  same  propor- 
tions are  maintained,  viz.,  four  parts  of  water 
to  one  part  of  hypo. 

The  hypo  bath  does  not  take  very  long  to  pre- 
pare, and  may  be  mixed,  if  preferred^  just  before 
development  is  commenced.  The  plate  should 
be  placed  in  the  fixing  bath  and  left 
there  until  it  is  completely  fixed.  This  may  be 
readily  judged  by  examining  the  back  of  the 
negative  by  reflected  light.  If  any  of  the  un- 
altered silver  bromide  is  still  undissolved,  it  will 
appear  as  a  creamy  white  patch,  and  until  the 
whole  of  this  has  been  dissolved  away  and  noth- 
ing but  the  picture  on  the  clear  glass  remains, 
the  fixing  process  should  be  continued. 

After  the  negative  has  been  fixed  it  should  be 
thoroughly  washed,  either  in  running  water  or 
in  several  changes,  the  period  required  to  elimi- 
nate all  the  hypo  being  about  one  hour,  provided 
a  thorough  and  continual  change  of  the  water 
is  arranged  for. 


109 


When  washed  the  negative  may  be  allowed 
to  dry.  Heat  should  not  be  applied  to  effect  this 
quickly,  as  the  gelatine  will  be  in  great  danger 
of  becoming  melted.  The  negative  should  be 
placed  in  an  almost  upright  position  in  a  dry, 
cool  place,  where  no  dust  is  likely  to  collect. 

How  to  Recognize  and  Correct  Under-  and 
Overexposure. — The  foregoing  description  of 
the  progress  and  development  was  based  on  the 
assumption  that  the  exposure  of  the  plate  in  the 
camera  had  been  fairly  correct.  It  is,  however, 
extremely  likely  that  the  beginner  will  for  some 
time,  at  any  rate,  make  numerous  mistakes  in 
judging  the  correct  exposure,  and  I  will,  there- 
fore, now  proceed  to  explain  how  such  mistakes 
may  be  compensated  for  by  a  modification  of  the 
development.  The  reader  will  remember  that  1 
said  the  high  lights  in  the  picture  would  first 
begin  to  appear  about  a  minute  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  development,  if  the  exposure 
had  been  approximately  correct.  We  will  now 
suppose,  however,  that  at  the  expiration  of  that 
time  no  indication  of  the  picture  appeared,  and 
that,  in  fact,  two  or  three  minutes  had  elapsed 
before  the  plate  first  began  to  darken.  If,  after 
this,  the  high  lights  and  half-tones  came  up 
quickly,  and  yet,  in  spite  of  a  prolongation  of  de- 
velopment, no  detail  appeared  in  the  shadows, 
it  is  a  pretty  sure  sign  that  the  plate  was  under- 
exposed. The  opposite  case  to  this,  viz.,  over- 
exposure, is  indicated  by  the  picture  appearing 
considerably  before  the  expiration  of  a  minute, 
and,  instead  of  coming  out  regularly  and  gradu- 
ally, it  makes  its  full  appearance  in  a  very  short 
space  of  time.  In  cases  of  gross  overexposure 
the  whole  picture  seems  to  flash  out  at  once, 
almost  directly  the  developer  is  poured  over  the 


110 


surface,  and  the  film  appears  to  go  gray  and 
foggy.  Of  the  above  faults  underexposure  is 
the  more  serious,  as  in  many  cases  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  bring  detail  out  in  the  underexposed  parts, 
no  matter  how  the  development  may  be  modi- 
fied. With  care  all  but  very  extreme  cases  of 
overexposure  can  be  sufficiently  controlled  to 
enable  a  satisfactory  negative  to  be  obtained. 

If  the  negative  appears  to  suffer  from  under- 
exposure, as  indicated  above,  the  following  pro- 
cedure should  be  adopted: 

Pour  the  developer  back  into  the  cup  or  mix- 
ing glass,  and  replace  it  in  the  developing  dish 
with  clean  water.  The  developer  must  then  be 
weakened  or  diluted  with  about  an  equal  bulk 
of  water.  Pour  off  the  water  from  the  dish  and 
continue  the  development  with  the  weakened 
developer.  The  developer  should  be  allowed  to 
act  until  the  high-lights  have  become  quite 
opaque,  and  probably  by  that  time  a  good  deal 
of  the  details  in  the  shadows  will  have  appeared. 
I  may  here  give  the  reader  a  hint  as  to  alter- 
ing the  strength  or  proportions  of  the  developer 
in  use  in  the  developing  dish.  This  should  never 
be  done  by  adding  the  water  or  fresh  solution 
to  the  developer  while  it  is  in  the  dish,  as  it  is 
impossible  for  a  thorough  mixture  to  take  place 
in  this  way,  and  unequal  or  patchy  development 
of  the  plate  will  result.  The  developer  should 
first  be  poured  off  into  the  mixing  glass,  and 
the  requisite  addition  made.  It  can  be  then 
returned  to  the  dish  with  comparative  safety. 

The  correction  of  overexposure  will  require 
more  prompt  attention  than  that  of  underex- 
posure, for  in  the  former  case  the  mischief  is 
soon  accomplished.  As  soon  as  there  is  an  indi- 
cation that  overexposure  is  the  fault,  the  de-"' 


Ill 


veloper  should  be  at  once  poured  back  into  the 
graduate  glass,  and  very  greatly  reduced  in 
strength  by  adding  water.  Also  put  in  a  few 
drops  of  a  strong  solution  of  bromide  of 
potassium.  The  development  can  then  be  con- 
tinued until  the  contrasts  appear  likely  to  be 
about  normal,  or  until  the  action  of  the  solution 
appears  to  be  less  vigorous. 

To  Intensify  a  Negative. — ^The  reader  will 
sometimes  find  that  a  negative,  after  develop- 
ment and  fixing,  appears  thin ;  that  is,  there  is 
plenty  of  detail  and  graduation,  but  the  image 
is  not  sufficiently  opaque  to  yield  satisfactory 
prints.  This  may  be  due  to  one  of  several  causes. 
For  instance,  it  may  be  caused  by  overexposure ; 
by  removal  from  the  developer  before  sufficient 
density  was  obtained;  or  by  the  thinness  of  the 
emulsion  with  which  the  plate  was  coated.  A 
negative  of  this  kind  may  be  considerably  im- 
proved by  the  process  known  as  'Tntensifica- 
tion."  The  following  is  the  method  of  proced- 
ure: 

After  the  negative  has  been  fixed  it  must  be 
thoroughly  washed  and  then  placed  in  a  strong 
alum  bath  for  about  ten  minutes.  After  a  fur- 
ther washing  it  is  placed  in  the  intensifying  so- 
lution, made  as  follows: 

Bi-Chloride  of  mercury. 3^  oz.  or  5  parts 
Hydrochloric  acid. . .  .45  grains  or  i  part 
Water  10  ozs.  or  100  parts 

A  note  of  warning  with  regard  to  bi-chloride 
of  mercury :  This  is  a  strong  poison  and  is  some- 
times known  as  corrosive  sublimate  or  mercuric 
chloride.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  into 
contact  with  any  cuts,  etc.,  on  the  hands  or 
fingers. 


112 


The  negative  should  be  kept  in  the  above  so- 
lution till  it  becomes  a  grayish  white  all  over 
and  then  thoroughly  washed  and  placed  in  a  sec- 
ond bath  composed  of : 

Liq.  ammonia  (U.  S.  P.)   i  oz 

Water  up  to   .20  ozs 

When  the  action  of  this  bath  is  completed,  as 
may  be  noted  by  the  cessation  of  a  visible  change 
in  the  color  of  the  negative,  the  latter  is  taken 
out  and  thoroughly  washed  and  dried. 

To  Reduce  a  Negative. — In  contradistinction 
to  the  foregoing,  a  process  called  ''reduction'' 
may  be  necessitated,  if  the  negative  should  be 
so  dense  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  obtain  a  print. 
This  is  usually  caused  by  the  development  hav- 
ing been  too  prolonged.  The  following  is  the 
method  of  obtaining  a  reduction  of  this  excessive 
density : 

The  negative  must  be  thoroughly  washed  after 
fixing,  and  should  then  be  placed  in  a  dish  and 
covered  with  a  clean  solution  of  hypo.  A  solu- 
tion of  potassium  ferricyanide  is  then  made,  as 
follows : 

Potassium  ferricyanide   i  oz 

Water  up  to  10  ozs 

Pour  off  the  hypo  from  the  dish  into  a  measur- 
ing dish,  add  a  few  drops  of  the  above  solution 
and  again  pour  over  the  plate.  Reduction  will 
at  once  commence  and  will  proceed  pretty  rapid- 
ly, the  rate  depending  upon  the  amount  of  fer- 
ricyanide added.  As  soon  as  the  negative  is 
nearly  reduced  enough  take  it  out  of  the  bath 
and  thoroughly  wash.  The  image  will  be  re- 
duced a  little  more  during  washing. 

Drying  Negatives. — Negatives  should  be  dried 
as  rapidly  as  possible ;  this  is  most  conveniently 


113 


done  by  having  a  regular  negative-drying  rack. 
(See  Fig.  60.)  The  ideal  way  is  to  place  this 
rack  holding  negatives  three  or  four  feet  away 
from  an  electric  fan  in  motion;  where  this  is 
not  possible,  the  rack  of  negatives  can  be  placed 
in  the  best  draft  of  air  possible  in  the  house; 
never  in  the  sun,  particularly  in  summer.  When 
the  negative  is  dried  too  slowly  in  a  close,  warm 
room  it  will  be  of  a  different  character  and  when 
dry  will  be  thickened  and  very  heavy  in  high 
lights ;  this  is  caused  by  the  moisture  on  the  plate 


being  heated  by  the  air  up  to  85  to  90  degrees 
Fahr.,  thereby  dissolving  some  of  the  minute 
sacs  of  gelatine  in  the  film,  permitting  several 
atoms  of  silver  to  come  together  and  form  one 
mass;  this  going  on  all  over  the  plate  makes 
what  is  called  a  coarse-grained  negative. 

Varnishing  Negatives. — All  negatives  should 
be  varnished  as  a  matter  of  protection.  It  is 
quite  permissible  to  take  prints  from  an  unvar- 
nished negative,  and,  indeed,  there  are  many 
workers  who  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  protect 
their  negatives  by  a  coating  of  varnish.  As, 
however,  there  are  many  negatives  obtained 


Fig.  60. 


114 


which,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  it  is  im- 
possible to  replace,  I  think  the  practice  of  var- 
nishing is  not  an  extravagant  precaution  to  take 
against  possible  injuries  from  stray  splashes  of 
liquids,  or  the  effects  of  a  damp  atmosphere.  All 
photographic  dealers  supply  a  clear  hard  varnish 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  method  of  its  appli- 
cation is  as  follows: 

First  warm  your  negative  by  gently  and  evenly 
applying  heat  until  it  feels  quite  hot  to  the 
hand.  Then  hold  the  negative  horizontally,  film 
side  upwards,  on  the  finger  tips,  and  pour  a  pool 
of  varnish  in  the  center.  The  negative  should 
then  be  slightly  tilted,  first  one  way  and  then  the 
other,  until  the  varnish  has  traversed  every  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  film.  Then  tilt  the 
negative  up  at  a  considerable  angle  and  drain 
oflf  the  surplus  varnish  into  the  bottle.  The 
negative  may  then  be  gently  dried  in  front  of  a 
fire  and  allowed  to  cool. 

Retouching  Negatives. — Retouching  means  im- 
proving the  negative  by  mechanical  methods, 
either  with  a  lead  pencil  or  sable  brush.  Land- 
scape negatives  can  be  sometimes  improved,  es- 
pecially where  the  negative  is  thin  in  sky,  by 
smoking  the  glass  side 'over  a  candle  flame  or  by 
printing  through  a  yellow  tissue  paper ;  this  is 
not  necessary  in  well-balanced  negatives.  Por- 
trait negatives  can  very  often  be  improved  by 
retouching,  as  the  unretouched  negatives  show 
facial  defects  in  greater  prominence  than  they 
really  are.  This  is  done  by  using  a  fine-pointed 
lead  pencil  on  the  surface  of  the  film  to  blot  out, 
modify  or  remove  them  and  the  deep  shadows, 
particularly  those  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth, 
crowsfeet,  freckles,  etc.    Retouching  is  a  profes- 


115 

sion  of  itself  and  to  become  proficient  in  the  same 
requires  an  instructor. 

Storing  Plate  Negatives. — When  the  amateur 
has  made  some  progress  in  the  practice  of  photog- 
raphy he  will  begin  to  accumulate  a  number  of 
negatives  of  value  and  interest,  and  the  question 
will  arise  as  to  how  these  may  best  be  classi- 
fied and  kept.  A  simple  and  inexpensive  method 
is  to  place  each  negative  inside  a  plain  envel- 
ope, and  on  the  outside  of  this  inscribe  the  sub- 
ject and  the  circumstances  under  which  the 
picture  was  taken.  For  example,  one  inscription 
might  read  thus:  ''Lake  steamer  entering  Chi- 
cago harbor.    June  25,  1902.   's  '  '  plate. 

Stop  F-ii.  Exposure,  one-thirtieth  sec/'  De- 
tails such  as  these  often  prove  of  service  for  fu- 
ture reference.  The  negatives  thus  encased  may 
be  stored  in  ordinary  cardboard  boxes,  and  each 
box  labeled  outside  with  the  nature  of  its  con- 
tents, thus:  ''Summer  Holiday,  1902.  Chicago 
and  neighborhood."  Some  readers  may  prefer 
to  buy  negative  boxes  ready  made,  and  these 
can  be  obtained  at  a  comparatively  small  cost. 
They  are  provided  with  grooves  into  which  the 
negatives  drop,  and  each  box  contains  space 
for  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  plates.  If 
these  are  numbered  and  a  list  of  the  subjects 
pasted  inside  the  box  lid  any  desired  negative 
can  quickly  be  found. 

HOW  TO  DEVELOP  CARTRIDGE  FILMS. 

Film,  to  avoid  curling,  must  always  be  devel- 
oped face  down,  otherwise  it  is  handled  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  plates,  except,  of  course,  that 
it  must  be  cut  up  before  printing. 

For  all  cartridge  rolls  smaller  than  4x5  devel- 
opment should  be  started  in  the  strip,  as  this 


ii6 

method  removes  the  possibility  of  cutting* 
through  the  negatives.  The  same  method  may 
be  used  with  the  larger  sizes,  but  owing  to  their 
length  is,  perhaps,  not  quite  so  convenient  as  to 
cut  up  the  film  before  development  is  started. 
Having  shut  out  all  extraneous  light  from  the 
dark  room  and  lighted  the  dark  room  lamp, 

a.  Unroll  the  film  and  detach  the  entire  strip 
from  the  black  paper. 


Fig.  61. 


b.  Pass  the  film  through  a  tray  of  clean  cold 
water  as  shown  in  Fig.  6i,  holding  one  end  in 
each  hand.  Pass  through  the  water  several  times, 
that  there  may  be  no  bubbles  remaining  on  the 
film.  When  it  is  thoroughly  wet,  with  no  air 
bubbles,  place  the  strip  of  film  in  a  tray  of  water, 
immersing  it  fully  but  not  folding  tightly  so  as 
to  crack  it. 


117 


c.  Prepare  the  develop  according  to  instruc- 
tions given  in  directions  accompanying  the  Use 
of  Films  or  according  to  one  of  the  formulae 
given  in  this  chapter. 

d.  Now  pass  the  film  through  the  developer  in 
the  same  manner  as  described  for  wetting  it  and 
shown  in  Fig.  63.  Keep  it  constantly  in  motion, 
and  in  about  one  minute  the  high  lights  will  be- 
gin to  darken  and  you  will  readily  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  unexposed  sections  between  the 
negatives. 


Fig.  62. 


e.  With  a  pair  of  shears  cut  the  negatives  apart 
and  place  them  face  down  in  the  tray  of  clear 
water. 

The  negatives  may  now  be  immersed  in  the 
developer  one  section  at  a  time,  and  developed 
and  fixed  according  to  instructions  given  for  dry 
plates  and  sheet  film. 

This  method  must  always  be  followed  with  the 
cartridge  roll  bolder  rolls,  but  they  may  first  be 


ii8 


cut  in  two  at  point  where  perforations  occur  in 
the  middle  of  strip. 

Another  Way. — i.  Unroll  the  film  and  cut  the 
exposures  apart  as  shown  in  Fig.  62.  In  unroll- 
ing the  film  preparatory  to  development  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  end  be  not  allowed  to 
roll  over  the  paper.  The  exposures  should  be 
cut  apart  with  the  paper  on  top.  Fig.  63  shows 
a  cartridge  unrolled  with  the  film  on  top.  To 
correct  this  simply  turn  back  the  film  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  lines,  thus  bringing  the  film 
under  the  paper. 


2.  Fill  a  tray  nearly  full  of  water,  and  put 
into  it  the  exposures,  one  by  one,  face  down; 
put  them  in  edgewise,  to  avoid  air  bells,  and  im- 
merse them  fully.  Cover  the  tray  with  a  bit  of 
brown  paper  to  keep  out  the  light  from  the 
lamp. 

3.  Prepare  the  developer. 

4.  Take  one  of  the  exposures  from  the  water 
and  immerse  it  face  down  in  a  second  tray.  Rock 
it  back  and  forth  to  prevent  streaks  and  air  bub- 
bles; in  about  one  minute  the  film  will  begin  to 
darken  in  spots,  representing  the  lights  of  the 


Incorrect  Method. 
Fig.  63. 


119 


picture,  and  in  about  two  minutes  the  operator 
will  be  able  to  distinguish  objects  in  the  picture. 
The  developer  should  be  allowed  to  act  5  to  10 
minutes.  The  progress  of  the  development  may 
be  watched  by  holding  the  negative,  from  time 
to  time,  up  to  the  lamp.    (See  Fig.  64.) 

5.  Transfer  the  developed  film  to  a  third  tray 
and  rinse  two  or  three  times  with  water,  leaving 
it  to  soak  while  the  next  film  is  being  developed. 
Only  one  negative  should  be  developed  at  a  time 
until  the  operator  becomes  expert;  then  he  can 
manage  three  or  four  in  the  tray  at  one  time  and 


the  developer  will  answer  for  a  dozen  films  be- 
fore being  exhausted.  As  each  successive  nega- 
tive is  developed  it  should  be  put,  with  the  pre- 
ceding negatives,  in  the  washing  tray  and  the 
water  changed  twice  to  prevent  the  developer  re- 
maining in  the  films  from  staining  them. 

6.  Put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  into  a  fourth  tray,  fill  two-thirds  full  of 
water,  and  stir  until  dissolved.  This  is  called  the 
fixing  bath. 

7.  Immerse  the  negatives  one  by  one  in  the 
fixing  bath  until  they  are  entirely  clear  of  white 
spots  and  are  transparent  instead  of  milky  by 
transmitted  light.  This  will  require  about  10 
minutes. 


Fig.  64. 


120 


8.  The  red  or  yellow  glass  can  be  removed 
from  the  lamp  as  soon  as  all  the  exposures  have 
been  fixed. 

9.  Pour  off  the  fixing  solution  into  the  slop 
bucket  and  fill  the  tray  w^ith  clear,  cold  water; 
repeat  this  at  intervals  of  five  minutes,  five  or 
six  times,  keeping  the  negatives  in  motion  or 
transferring  them  back  and  forth  to  tray  No. 
3,  one  by  one,  to  ensure  the  water  acting  evenly 
upon  them.  The  fixing  solution  must  only  be 
used  in  tray  No.  4,  and  the  negatives,  after  fixing, 
must  not  be  put  in  either  No.  i  or  No.  2  trays. 
Neither  must  any  of  the  fixing  solution  be  al- 
lowed to  touch  the  films  through  the  agency  of 
the  fingers  or  otherwise,  until  they  are  ready  to 
go  into  the  fixing  bath,  otherwise  they  will  be 
spotted  or  blackened  so  as  to  be  useless. 

10.  When  the  negatives  are  thoroughly  washed 
put  one-half  ounce  of  glycerine  into  one  pint 
of  water  (four  portions  measured  with  the  grad- 
uate glass),  stir  well  and  soak  the  negatives  in 
the  solution  for  5  minutes;  then  remove  them 
and  wipe  off  the  surplus  moisture  with  a  soft, 
damp  cloth,  and  pin  them  by  the  four  corners 
face  up  to  a  flat  surface  to  dry.  The  glycerine 
solution  may  be  used  repeatedly.  The  trays  and 
measuring  glass  should  now  be  rinsed  out  and 
set  away  to  drain  and  dry.  When  the  negatives 
are  dry  they  are  ready  for  printing. 

By  following  closely  the  foregoing  directions 
the  novice  can  make  seventy-five  per  cent  or  up- 
wards of  good  negatives. 


USEFUL  FORMULAE 

FOR  DEVELOPING  AND  FIXING  DRY  PLATES  AND  NEGA- 
TIVE   FILMS    ACCORDING    TO  INSTRUCTIONS 
ALREADY  GIVEN  IN  PREVIOUS  PAGES 
OF  THIS  CHAPTER. 

Pyro  ABC  Developer. 


BY  WEIGHT. 

A.  Water  lo  oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals  ^  oz. 

Add  enough  pure  acetic  acid  to  this  to  turn  blue 
litmus  paper  slightly  red,  then  add : 

Pyro   I  oz. 

B.  Water   i6oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals  4  oz. 

C.  Water   16  oz. 

Sal  soda  crystals   40Z. 

To  develop  take  of 

A  >^  oz. 

B   I  oz. 

C   I  oz. 

*Water   8  oz. 


Apothecaries'  weights  are  intended  to  be  used 
in  the  above  formulas. 

More  water  gives  softness,  and  less  water  con- 
trast.  Use  less  water  in  cold  weather. 


*For  double-coated  plates  use  18  oz.  of  water. 
121 


122 


PYRO  ABC  DEVELOPER — HYDROMETER  TEST. 


A.  Water   lo  oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals  ^  oz. 

Add  enough  pure  acetic  acid  to  this  to  turn  blue 
litmus  paper  slightly  red,  then  add : 

Pyro   I  oz. 

B.  Sulphite  of  soda  solution  to  test  60 

C.  Sal  soda  solution  to  test  40 

To  develop  take  of 

A  oz. 

B   I  oz. 

C   I  oz. 

Water   8oz. 


Less  of  B  will  give  a  warmer  tone  to  negative. 
If  negatives  are  too  yellow,  use  more  of  B.  If  it 
is  found  during  the  summer  months  and  in  the 
south  that  acetic  acid  softens  the  film  too  much, 
substitute  sulphuric  acid. 

The  hydrometers  referred  to  are  often  called 
actinometers,  and  were  formerly  much  used  to 
test  the  strength  of  silver  baths.  They  are  sel- 
dom accurate,  and  it  is  best  for  each  operator  to 
make  up  a  set  of  the  solutions  according  to 
weight,  and  then,  noting  the  reading  on  his  hy- 
drometer, making  future  solutions  accordingly. 

EIKONOGEN-HYDROCHINONE  DEVELOPER. 

No.  I.  Distilled  or  pure  well  water. .  .  32  oz. 

Sodium  sulphite  (crystals)   40Z. 

Eikonogen  240  gr. 

Hydrochinone   60  gr. 


123 

No.  2.  Water    32  oz. 

Carbonate  of  potash   4  oz. 

To  develop  take 

No.  I    20Z. 

No.  2   I  oz. 

*Water   i  oz. 

By  Hydrometer : 

No.  I.  Sodium  sulphite  sorn  to  test  30.  34  oz. 

Eikonogen  .  240  gr, 

Hydrochinone   60  gr. 

No.  2.  Carbonate  of  potash  solution  to  test  50 
To  develop  take  of 

No.  I    20Z. 

No.  2   I  oz. 

*  Water   i  oz. 

More  water  gives  less  contrast  and  density. 

EIKONOGEN  DEVELOPER. 

No.  I  solution: 

Eikonogen   40  gr. 

Sodium  sulphite   40  gr. 

Water  up  to  10  oz. 

No.  2  solution : 

Sodium  carbonate  200  gr. 

Potassium  hydrate   25  gr. 

Water  up  to   10  oz. 

For  developing,  take  equal  parts  of  No.  i  and 
No.  2. 

HYDROCHINONE  DEVELOPER. 

A.  Hydrochinone    i  oz. 

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals)..  . .    5  oz. 

*For  double-coated  plates  use  5  oz.  of  water. 


124 


Bromide  of  potassium   logr. 

Water  (ice  or  distilled)   55  oz. 

B.  Caustic  potash  i8o  gr. 

Water   looz. 

To  develop  take  of 

A   40Z. 

B   1/2  oz. 


After  use  pour  into  a  separate  bottle.  This  can 
be  used  repeatedly,  and  with  uniformity  of  re- 
sults, by  the  addition  of  one  dram  of  A  and  10 
drops  of  B  to  every  8  oz.  of  old  developer. 

In  using  this  developer  it  is  important  to  notice 
the  temperature  of  the  room,  as  a  slight  variation 
in  this  respect  causes  a  very  marked  difference  in 
the  time  it  takes  to  develop,  much  more  so  than 
with  pyro.  Temperature  of  room  should  be  from 
70  to  75  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

For  flashlight  exposures  a  normal  developer  is 
sufficient  where  sufficient  powder  has  been  used. 
A  weaker  developer  is  needed  only  when  there  is 
considerable  distance  between  the  subject  and 
the  light  or  where  too  little  powd^  was  used. 


FIXING  BATH. 

A.  Water  96  oz. 

Hypo   2  lbs. 

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals)   4  oz. 

B.  Water   32  oz. 

Chrome-alum   2  oz. 

Sulphuric  acid  54  oz. 


Pour  B  into  A  while  stirring  A  rapidly.  As  the 
chrome-alum  dissolves  slowly  a  stock  solution  of 
B  can  be  made  up. 


125 


METOL  DEVELOPER. 


No.  I.  Water   8  oz. 

Metol  loogr. 

Sulphite  of  soda  crystals   i  oz. 

No.  2.  Water  lo  oz. 

Potassium  carbonate   i  oz. 


Take  equal  parts  of  Nos.  i  and  2  and  six  parts 
of  water.  If  more  contrast  is  needed,  take  equal 
parts  of  Nos.  i  and  2  and  three  parts  of  water, 
with  5  drops  to  the  ounce  of  a  i-io  solution  of 
bromide  of  potassium. 

For  Black-Tone  Transparency  and  Lantern 
Plates. 

METOL-HYDRO  DEVELOPER. 


A.  Water   .  . ;  i6  oz. 

Metol    30  gr. 

Hydrochinone   30  gr. 

Sodium  sulphite  (dry)  120  gr. 

B.  Water   16  oz. 

Potassium  bromide   IS  gr. 

Sodium  carbonate  (dry)  120  gr. 


If  the  crystalized  sulphite  and  carbonate  are 
used,  take  twice  as  much  of  each  as  the  formula 
calls  for.  To  develop,  take  equal  parts  of  A  and 
B.  Developer  should  not  be  lower  than  75  deg. 
F.  in  winter  and  not  higher  than  70  deg.  F  in 
summer,  and  can  be  used  repeatedly,  but  should 
be  discarded  as  soon  as  discolored,  as  it  will  then 
stain  the  film.  Always  develop  to  a  good  inten- 
sity, as  plates  developed  with  hydrochinone  fix 
out  somewhat.   Rinse  and  fix. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


PRINTING,    TONING,    MOUNTING  AND 
FINISHING  OF  MISCELLANEOUS 
PAPERS— VIGNETTING. 

The  novice  in  the  mysteries  of  photography  has 
now  been  carried  in  imagination  through  all  the 
operations  necessary  in  the  making  of  the  nega- 
tive. He  is  the  possessor  of  several  first-class 
but  imaginary  negatives — pictures  in  which  all 
those  portions  which  should  be  white  are  black 
and  those  which  should  be  black  are  represented 
by  clear  glass.  He  will  recognize  that  this  is  mere- 
ly a  means  to  an  end,  and  that  the  way  to  produce 
a  positive  picture  from  a  negative  is  to  place  a 
sensitive  surface  in  contact  with  it,  and  to  expose 
to  the  action  of  light  so  that  the  rays  passing 
through  all  those  portions  of  the  negative  which 
are  transparent  will  turn  the  sensitive  surface 
black  in  those  places,  while  the  dark  parts  of  the 
negative  will  protect  it  from  the  darkening  in- 
fluence, and  so  form  a  print  which  is  positive — 
which  has  its  lights  and  shades  in  the  correct 
relation  to  one  another.  The  process  by  which 
this  result  is  obtained  is  known  as  Photographic 
Printing,  and  the  resultant  positives,  made  .on 
sensitized  or  printing  papers,  are  called  prints. 

Until  quite  recently  Albumen  Paper  was  used 
almost  exclusively  by  the  photographer,  but  while 
this  paper  yields  most  excellent  and  permanent 
results,  it  is  extremely  tedious  and  troublesome 
in  manipulation,  and  of  late  years  the  field  which 
it  held  so  long  has  been  almost  entirely  pre- 
empted by  the  ready  prepared  products. 

126 


127 


These  prepared  papers  are  of  many  kinds,  and 
are  generally  known  as  Emulsion  or  Aristotype 
papers.  The  word  Aristotype,  however,  covers  a 
very  broad  field,  as  nearly  all  the  products  are 
made  after  different  formulae  and  each  brand  has 
little  peculiarities  of  its  own  that  require  special 
treatment  in  manipulation.  For  this  reason  it  is 
impossible  to  outline  a  method  of  operation  that 
will  exactly  suit  all  kind^,  and  the  instructions 
herewith  given  are  but  general. 

These  various  papers  are  known  generally  as 
Collodion,  Gelatine,  Bromide,  Ferro-Prussiate, 
etc.  They  are  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
known  as  Printing-Out  papers  and  Developing 
papers.  From  the  large  number  of  brands  on 
the  market  it  is  possible  to  obtain  almost  any 
grade  or  texture  desired,  such  as  smooth  or 
glossy  surface,  mat  surface,  etc. 

The  various  manufacturers  enclose  with  each 
package  of  their  product  specific  instructions  for 
manipulation,  and  the  amateur  will  do  well  to 
follow  same  closely. 

By  Printing-Out  papers  is  meant  those  kinds 
on  which  all  details  of  the  negative  are  printed 
fully  out,  the  paper  afterward  being  subjected  to 
the  toning  and  fixing  processes  presentiv  de- 
scribed. 

Developing  papers  are  those  with  which  the 
details  of  the  negative,  instead  of  being  printed 
out,  as  with  printing-out  papers,  are  exposed  in 
contact  with  a  negative  and  after  exposure  are 
developed  and  fixed  in  a  manner  very  similar  to 
that  in  which  a  negative  is  produced.  Platino- 
type  and  kindred  papers  partake  of  the  nature  of 
both  Printing-Out  and  strictly  Developing  pa- 
pers, as  in  their  use  they  are  printed  out  to  a 
dim  outline  and  afterward  developed.  Develop- 


128 


ing  papers  are  many  times  quicker  than  any 
Printing-Out  paper.  Those  who  have  but  little 
time  in  daylight  for  photographic  work,  instead 
of  spending  hours  in  printing,  washing,  toning, 
etc.,  can  in  a  very  few  moments  make  all  their 
prints  by  exposure  to  any  artificial  light,  and  in 
an  equally  short  time  develop  and  finish  them, 
thus  leaving  all  the  sunshiny  hours  for  other  pur- 
suits. 

Of  the  many  papers  offered  probably  the  most 
desirable,  for  the  beginner  at  any  rate,  is  a  Gela- 
tino-Chloride  (chloride  of  silver  in  an  emulsion  of 
gelatine)  printing-out  paper.  In  the  negative  we 
have  learned  that  the  image  is  latent  until 
brought  out  by  chemical  action.  In  the  printing- 
out  paper  the  image  ''prints-out"  at  once.  Before 
it  is  toned  and  fixed  it  is  in  the  same  condition 
as  a  proof  received  from  the  photographer.  The 
chemical  action  clears  the  high  lights  and  shad- 
ows, gives  the  proper  tone  and  ''fixes"  the  print, 
i.  e.,  makes  it  permanent. 

The  processes  of  toning  and  fixing  may  be 
combined  in  one  bath  or  may  be  done  separately. 
For  convenience  the  combined  bath  can  be  used, 
but  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  overwork 
the  bath.  Toning  with  an  overworked  bath  will 
not  yield  permanent  results  and  no  attempt  to 
economize  by  overworking  the  toning  bath 
should  be  made,  as  disappointment  will  be  the 
inevitable  result. 

Printing. — In  order  to  hold  the  paper  in  contact* 
with  the  negative  during  the  operation  of  print- 
ing, a  special  frame  is  employed,  with  a  hinged 
back  and  springs  tohold  it  down,thisbeingknown 
as  a  printing  frame.  The  back  is  hinged  so  that 
while  one  half  of  the  print  in  progress  is  firmly 
held  by  one  spring  in  its  position  behind  the 


129 


negative,  the  other  half  can  be  turned  back  by 
the  printer  in  order  to  see  what  progress  has 
been  made,  with  the  full  assurance  that  it  will 
drop  back  exactly  into  position  for  further  ex- 
posure, if  that  should  be  necessary. 

Though  printing-out  paper  is  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  the  light,  it  is  not  so  to  anything  like  the 
same  degree  that  a  photographic  plate  or  film 
or  developing  paper  is.  For  instance,  gas  light 
has  practically  no  effect  whatever  upon  it,  and 
all  the  operations  of  placing  it  in  the  printing 
frames  and  so  on  can  be  conducted  in  weak  day- 
light with  impunity  instead  of  in  the  dark  room. 

To  make  a  print,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  re- 
move the  back  from  the  printing  frame  by  shift- 
ing aside  the  two  pressure  springs  and  lifting  it 
out,  when,  the  frame  being  laid  face  downwards 
on  a  table,  the  negative  to  be  printed  is  placed 
in  it,  with  the  film  side  uppermost.  Then  a  piece 
of  sensitized  paper  is  placed  in  position  on  the 
negative,  with  its  shiny  side  downward,  so  that 
the  two  films  are  in  contact  with  one  another,  the 
back  is  replaced,  the  springs  brought  to  bear 
upon  it  and  the  whole  placed  in  some  position 
where  plenty  of  light  will  fall  upon  it.  On  an 
ordinary  bright  summer  day  printing  frames 
placed  on  the  window  sill  on  that  side  of  the 
house  on  which  the  sun  is  not  shining  will,  with 
negatives  of  average  density,  yield  prints  of  good 
quality  at  a  fair  rate  of  printing.  Of  course,  the 
amount  of  exposure  which  a  given  print  will  re- 
quire depends  not  only  upon  the  quality  and 
brilliancy  of  the  light,  but  also  very  considerably 
upon  the  density  and  color  of  the  negative  under 
which  it  is  exposed.  Moreover,  the  speed  at 
which  a  print  is  made  affects  its  ultimate  quality 
to  a  marked  extent,  and  a  long  exposure  in  a 


130 


poor  light,  tending  to  brilliancy  in  the  resultant 
print,  will  give  a  more  plucky  picture,  with 
higher  contrasts,  from  the  same  negative  than 
one  in  which  the  exposure  has  been  a  short  one 
to  a  brilliant  light.  Extra  brilliancy  is  not  al- 
ways desirable,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  con- 
trasts in  the  negative  are  already  as  high  as  is 
at  all  necessary,  and  in  this  case  a  short  exposure 
to  a  very  bright  light — even  to  direct  sun- 
light, in  extreme  cases — will  give  the  best  re- 
sults. On  the  other  hand,  when  the  negative  is 
unduly  thin  and  weak,  as  when  it  has  been  over- 
exposed, a  brighter  plate  than  would  normally 
result  may  be  obtained  by  slow  printing  in  a 
very  weak  light,  or  by  allowing  the  light  to  filter 
through  a  piece  of  tissue  paper  placed  over  the 
printing  frame. 

Prints  upon  printing-out  papers  should  always 
be  more  deeply  printed  than  it  is  desired  that 
the  finished  picture  shall  be,  for  they  always 
fade  more  or  less  in  the  subsequent  toning  and 
fixing  operations.  It  is  difficult  to  give  definite 
directions  for  the  exact  extent  to  which  this  extra 
printing  should  be  carried,  especially  as  it  varies 
for  different  papers  and  different  toning  solu- 
tions ;  but  a  little  experience  will  soon  reveal  the 
amount  of  fading  which  has  to  be  guarded 
against  with  any  particular  materials  and  pre- 
cautions can  be  taken  accordingly. 

Toning. — When  the  prints  are  taken  from  the 
frame  they  are  of  a  bright  red  color,  not  alto- 
gether a  displeasing  hue,  if  it  could  be  retained, 
but  it  can  not,  for  the  effect  of  the  necessary  fix- 
ing bath  is  to  transform  it  into  a  horrible  bilious 
brown.  In  order  to  avoid  this  objectionable  fea- 
ture recourse  is  had  to  what  is  called  the  ''toning 
bath,"  a  very  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  gold, 


131 

fn  which  the  prints  are  placed,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  throw  down  on  all  those  portions  of  the 
print  in  which  there  is  already  a  deposit  of  silver 
a  thin  film  of  metallic  gold,  which  imparts  to  it 
the  proper  tone. 

As  the  toning  operation  is  a  somewhat  tedi- 
ous one,  giving  very  nearly  as  much  trouble 
where  only  two  prints  are  concerned  as  for  two 
dozen,  it  is  expedient  to  postpone  it  until  there 
are  a  sufficient  number  of  photographs  to  be 
toned  to  make  it  worth  while.  Albeit,  the  treat- 
ment should  not  be  put  off  for  too  long,  as  the 
prints  deteriorate  with  the  lapse  of  time.  A  week 
or  so,  however,  will  have  no  appreciable  deter- 
rent effect  if  prints  are  kept  in  an  absolutely  dark 
receptacle. 

The  formulae  and  treatment  recommended  hj 
the  manufacturer — who,  it  is  only  natural  to  sup- 
pose, knows  more  about  the  peculiarities  of  his 
own  products  than  any  one  else — should  be 
strictly  adhered  to.  In  the  sheet  of  instructions 
issued  with  every  packet  of  paper  there  is  given 
an  extremely  simple  and  excellent  recipe  for  a 
toning  bath,  although  it  is  generally  pointed  out 
that  any  of  the  recognized  formulae  for  this  class 
of  paper  may  be  used. 

All  photographic  chemicals  may  be  very  much 
deteriorated  by  accidental  admixture  with  for- 
eign substances,  but  none  are  so  sensitive  to  con- 
tamination as  the  toning  bath.  A  separate  dish 
should  be  reserved  for  toning,  and  never  on  any 
account  used  for  anything  else.  Successful  ton- 
ing can  only  be  accomplished  by  observing  the 
greatest  cleanliness  in  all  the  operations  and  all 
the  materials  and  vessels  used,  for  the  smallest 
quantity  of  hypo,  for  instance,  will  have  a  very 
detrimental  effect  upon  the  results. 


132 


Chloride  of  gold  is  a  ^component  part  of  nearly- 
all  toning  baths  and  it  is  advisable  for  the  ama- 
teur to  have  always  prepared  a  quantity  of  gold 
solution,  ready  for  immediate  use. 

This  chemical  (chloride  of  gold)  being  a  very 
precious  salt,  and,  moreover,  being  deliquescent — 
that  is,  liable  to  take  up  moisture  from  the  air 
and  become  liquid — is  sold  for  photographic  pur- 
poses in  tiny,  hermetically-sealed  tubes  holding 
15  grains  apiece.  This  small  quantity  of  the  tiny 
crystals  being  practically  unweighable  by  ordi- 
nary mortals,  it  v^ill  be  found  convenient  to  mix 
it  with  water,  which  can  then  be  conveniently 
measured.  Procure  a  i6-ounce  stoppered  bot- 
tle, put  15  ounces  of  water  in  it,  together  with 
the  tube  of  gold,  from  which  the  label  must  be 
previously  washed  with  warm  water,  then  in- 
sert the  stopper  and  shake  the  bottle  until  the 
tube  breaks.  You  will  then  have  a  solution  of 
gold  chloride  in  which  every  ounce  contains  one 
grain  of  the  precious  chemical,  which  can  be 
easily  measured  out  into  the  required  quantities 
by  means  of  a  graduated  glass. 

It  will  be  found  that  some  formulae  require 
the  use  of  a  certain  number  of  ounces  of  gold 
solution.  Others  state  that  a  certain  number 
of  grains  of  gold  must  be  used.  These  appar- 
ently conflicting  requirements  need  not  prove 
confusing  to  the  amateur  if  he  will  remember 
that,  when  made  up  according  to  directions 
given  above,  each  ounce  of  the  gold  solution  con- 
tains one  grain  of  pure  chloride  of  gold.  Hence, 
when  the  formula  he  intends  following  calls 
for,  say,  grains  of  gold  he  must  use  73^  ounces 
of  the  gold  solution. 

Having  thus  prepared  his  gold  solution,  the 
amateur  is  ready  to  make  up  his  toning  bath  ac- 


133 


cording  to  the  special  instructions  accompanying 
the  particular  brand  of  paper  he  is  using  or  ac- 
cording to  instructions  herein  given. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  TONING  WITH  THE 
COMBINED  BATH. 

Place  prints  without  previous  washing  in  the 
following  combined  toning  and  fixing  bath : 


Stock  Solution. 

A — Hyposulphite  of  soda  8  oz,  ^ 

Alum  (crystals)  6  oz. 

Sugar  (granulated)    2  oz. 

Water   8o  oz. 

Dissolve  above  in  cold  water  and 

When  dissolved  add  borax   .  2  oz. 

Dissolved  in  hot  water   8  oz. 

Let  stand  over  night  and  decant  clear  liquid. 
Stock  Solution. 

B — Pure  chloride  of  gold   7^  grains 

Acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead).  .64  grains 

Water    8  oz. 

Solution  B  should  be  shaken  up  before  using 
and  not  filtered. 

To  tone  fifteen  4x5  prints  take : 

Stock  Solution  A   8  oz. 

Stock  Solution  B   i  oz. 

Pour  the  toning  solution  into  a  suitable  tray 


and  immerse  the  prints  one  after  another.  Sev- 
eral prints  can  be  toned  at  once  if  they  are  kept 
in  motion  and  not  allowed  to  lie  in  contact.  Turn 
the  prints  all  face  down  and  then  face  up  and 
repeat  this  all  the  time  they  are  toning.  The 
prints  will  begin  to  change  color  almost  imme- 
diately from  reddish  brown  to  reddish  yellow, 


134 


then  to  brown  and  finally  to  purple.  The  change 
will  be  gradual  from  one  shade  to  another  and 
the  toning  should  be  stopped  when  the  print  gets 
the  shade  desired. 

When  the  proper  shade  has  been  obtained  in 
toning  bath  the  prints  should  be  transferred  for 
five  minutes  to  the  following  salt  solution  to  stop 
the  toning: 

Salt   I  oz. 

Water  32  oz. 

The  extra  fixing  bath  should  be  used  to  en- 
sure thorough  fixing. 

After  the  salt  bath  give  one  change  of  cold 
water  and  fix  for  ten  minutes  in  the 


Wash  one  hour  in  running  cold  water  or  in 
sixteen  changes  of  cold  water,  when  prints  may- 
be mounted. 

The  combined  bath  must  be  started  cold,  not 
above  50  degrees  Fahr.,  and  must  not  be  allowed 
to  rise  to  temperature  above  60  degrees  Fahr. 
This  condition  can  be  obtained  by  placing  a  piece 
of  ice  in  the  bath  when  toning.  If  the  bath  is 
too  warm,  you  will  get  yellow  prints  with  a 
greenish  cast  in  the  half  tones. 

Use  a  thermometer  and  keep  it  in  toning  bath 
all  the  time. 

The  combined  bath  is  an  acid  solution.  The 
borax  neutralizes  only  the  excess  of  acid  in  the 
alum.  Any  attempt  to  neutralize  the  bath  will 
precipitate  the  alum. 


Extra  Fixing  Bath. 


Hyposulphite  of  soda  

Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals) 

Borax  

Water  


.1  oz. 
60  grains 
K  oz. 


20  oz. 


135 


The  combined  bath  should  not  be  used  a  sec- 
ond time. 

Clean  trays  once  a  week  with  nitric  acid  or 
sulphuric  acid  and  water  to  prevent  white  spots 
or  blotches  on  the  prints. 

TONING  BY   THE   SEPARATE  TONING 
AND  FIXING  METHOD. 

The  method  of  toning  and  fixing  just  described 
is  by  means  of  the  combined  bath.  That  is  a 
solution  in  which  the  chemicals  for  toning  the 
prints  and  those  for  fixing  (rendering  them  per- 
manent) are  combined  in  the  one  solution. 

The  combined  bath  has  as  its  chief  claim  to 
consideration  the  fact  that  when  it  is  used  the 
operations  of  toning,  fixing  and  washing  are  ren- 
dered much  less  tedious  than  when  the  separate 
method  is  used.  However,  very  few  combined 
baths  will  produce  permanent  prints,  hence  the 
photographer  has  recourse  to  what  is  known  as 
the  separate  method  of  toning  and  fixing,  which, 
when  properly  used,  will  render  absolutely  per- 
manent prints. 

To  use  the  separate  methods  mix  as  follows: 

Toning  Bath. 

Chloride  of  gold     i  grain 

Water  40  oz. 

Alkali  (saturated  solution  of  borax 

or  bicarbonate  of  soda)   10  drops 

To  obtain  warm  tones  use  less  alkali.  To  ob- 
tain cold  tones  use  more  alkali. 

Having  mixed  up  the  toning  bath,  put  it  aside 
while  you  give  the  prints  their  preliminary  wash- 
ing. Place  them  one  by  one,  taking  care  that 
each  is  submerged  before  the  next  is  put  in,  into 


136 


a  large  basin  full  of  clean,  cold  water  and  as  soon 
as  all  are  in  transfer  them  one  at  a  time  to  an- 
other similar  bath  of  water  and  then  again  to  the 
third  and  so  on  until  all  have  been  washed  in 
several  changes  of  water  for  at  least  ten  min- 
utes. 

When  the  prints  are  ready  for  toning  they 
should  be  removed  from  the  washing  water,  for 
too  much  soaking  is  not  good  for  them,  and  put 
in  a  heap  to  drain.  Then  one  at  a  time  they 
are  placed  in  the  toning  bath  and  kept  moving 
about  in  the  solution  until  there  are  about  a 
dozen  under  treatment.  This  is  about  as  many 
as  can  be  comfortably  attended  to,  and  by  this 
time  the  first  ones  should  be  nearly  toned.  As 
soon  as  this  stage  is  reached  the  print  should  be 
transferred  to  another  dish  of  clean,  cold  water, 
to  stop  further  action,  and  a  fresh  one  can  be  put 
into  the  toning  bath  to  take  its  place.  Mean- 
while all  the  prints  in  the  toning  solution  must 
be  kept  in  constant  motion  to  avoid  unequal  ac- 
tion, from  which  patchy  pictures  would  result; 
the  best  plan  is  to  keep  continually  drawing  the 
bottom  print  out  of  the  liquid  and  placing  it  on 
the  top,  taking  each  one  from  the  bath  as  it  is 
seen  to  be  finished  and  replacing  it  with  a  fresh 
one  from  the  heap. 

When  all  the  prints  have  been  through  this 
operation  the  fixing  bath  should  be  prepared. 
The  fixing  bath  is  much  weaker  than  that  used 
for  negative  work,  and  should  always  be  freshly 
mixed  for  each  batch  of  prints.  The  following 
strength  is  recommended,  though  the  propor- 
tions need  not  be  very  exactly  measured: 
Fixing  Bath. 

Hyposulphite  of  soda   3  oz. 

Water   20  oz. 


137 


Ten  minutes  will  sufifice  to  complete  the  opera- 
tion and  again  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  prints  sticking  too  closely  to  one  another 
and  so  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  hypo.  The 
final  washing,  whose  duty,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
negatives,  is  to  remove  all  trace  of  the  hypo  and 
which  must,  therefore,  be  most  thoroughly  per- 
formed, for  upon  its  thoroughness  the  perma- 
nency of  the  prints  almost  entirely  depends,  takes 
at  least  fifty  minutes,  and  is  best  accomplished 
in  a  print  washer  in  running  water,  if  possible,  or, 
failing  that,  in  continual  changes,  one  print  at  a 
time. 

PRINTING  ON  DEVELOPING  PAPER. 

For  the  amateur  there  is  perhaps  no  more  sat- 
isfactory printing  process  than  that  offered  by 
the  use  of  developing  paper.  There  are  many 
brands  of  this  kind  of  paper  on  the  market  which 
are  familiar  to  most  users  of  the  camera,  viz.: 
Velox,  Dekko,  Argo,  etc.  Papers  of  this  class 
are  many  times  as  rapid  as  printing-out  paper. 
Prints  made  by  this  process  give  soft  platinum 
effects  with  a  minimum  of  trouble  and  expense. 

Printing  may  be  done  by  either  artificial  light 
or  daylight  and  the  print  then  developed  by  sub- 
dued daylight  or  lamp  light.  If  daylight  be  used 
the  amateur  should  simply  pull  down  all  of  the 
window  shades  and,  having  filled  the  printing 
frame  in  the  usual  manner,  step  to  the  window, 
raise  the  shade  a  trifle,  give  the  required  ex- 
posure, pull  down  the  shade  and  proceed  with 
development.  If  exposure  is  made  by  gas  light 
he  should  turn  up  the  jet  to  its  full  capacity  for 
the  required  time  and  when  ready  for  developing 
simply  turn  the  gas  low,  so  as  to  subdue  the 
light,  and  then  work  directly  under  it.    To  the 


138 


amateur  who  has  no  regularly  equipped  dark 
room  this  feature  of  the  paper  is  a  great  con- 
venience,  as  the  bath  room  or  kitchen  can  be 
readily  utilized  for  the  work  either  by  day  or 
night,  without  the  necessity  of  pinning  blankets 
over  doors  and  windows  to  stop  each  stray  ray  of 
light. 

When  filling  the  printing  frame  the  paper  not 
used  should  be  promptly  replaced  in  its  envelope 
and  put  away  in  a  dark  drawer. 

Exposure. — As  papers  of  this  class  vary  in 
sensitiveness  the  instructions  given,  so  far  as 
duration  of  exposure  is  concerned,  are  but  gen- 
eral. The  special  instructions  inclosed  in  every 
package  of  paper  must  be  accepted  in  preference 
to  any  general  rule.  To  print  from  a  negative 
of  average  density  expose  two  minutes,  six  inches 
from  an  ordinary  six-foot  gas  burner.  A  very 
thin  negative  will  print  in  about  one  minute  and 
a  very  dense  one  would  require  from  four  to 
five  minutes,  but  the  average  exposures  will  be 
from  two  to  three  minutes  by  this  light.  If  ex- 
posed to  direct  sunlight  an  exposure  of  from  one 
to  five  seconds  will  suffice.  As  a  general  rule 
printing  by  artificial  light  will  give  better  re- 
sults, and  after  the  first  two  or  three  experiments 
it  can  be  determined  by  the  appearance  of  a 
negative  just  how  much  time  will  be  required 
for  printing. 

Development. — Developing  papers  do  not  print 
out,  but  the  image  is  latent  and  must  be  devel- 
oped the  same  as  with  a  negative  or  a  bromide 
print. 

For  your  developer  make  up  a  stock  solution 
as  follows: 


139 


Hydro-Metol  Developer. 

Water    12  oz. 

Metol    7>4  grains 

Hydrochinone   30  grains 

Sodium  sulphite,  crystals  pure. 218  grains 
Sodium  carbonate  (crystals)  .  . .  163  grains 
Dissolve  and  add  about  25  drops  of  a  solution 
composed  of  bromide  of  potassium  Yz  oz.,  water 
S  oz.   This  solution  is  to  be  used  without  dilut- 
ing. 

Olive  green  tones  may  be  obtained  by  diluting 
developer  with  two  or  three  ounces  of  water 
and  adding  12  to  15  drops  of  the  bromide  of 
potassium. 

Soak  for  a  few  seconds  in  cold  water,  then 
place  face  up  in  tray  and  pour  on  developer.  If 
the  print  has  been  properly  exposed  development 
will  be  very  rapid.  The  instant  print  reaches 
the  required  density  it  should  be  transferred  di- 
rectly (without  washing)  to  the 

Hypo  Bath. 

Hyposulphite  soda   I  oz. 

Acetic  acid  (or  alum  J4  oz.)  4  drops 

Water   5  oz. 

Keep  print  moving  during  first  few  seconds 
of  immersion. 

Wash  thoroughly  for  one  hour  in  at  least 
twelve  changes  of  water  and  hang  up  to  dry. 

Four  ounces  of  the  diluted  developer  will  an- 
swer for  half  a  dozen  4x5  prints,  then  it  should 
be  thrown  away  and  a  new  developer  prepared 
from  the  stock  solution. 

Failures  and  Their  Causes. — Weak  prints  are 
caused  by  underexposure  or  weak  developer. 

Overdark  prints  are  the  result  of  too  long  ex- 
posure or  too  strong  developer. 


140 

Muddy  whites  are  usually  from  lack  of  bromide 
in  developer,  but  may  be  caused  by  paper  being 
light-struck,  by  forcing  development  of  under- 
timed  prints  or  by  failure  to  move  prints  in  hypo 
bath. 

Greenish-brown  tones  are  the  result  of  too 
much  bromide  in  the  developer  or  of  the  use  of 
old  or  weak  developer. 

Yellow  stains  come  usually  from  insufficient 
washing  or  fixing,  but  are  sometimes  the  result 
of  not  completely  immersing  the  print  in  de- 
veloper or  of  not  keeping  them  moving  for  a  few 
seconds  when  first  put  into  hypo. 

Brown  or  purple  stains  sometimes  result  from 
incomplete  fixing  or  from  failure  to  keep  prints 
moving  in  the  hypo.    The  remedy  is  obvious. 

White  spots  are  the  result  of  bubbles  on  the 
paper  while  in  the  developer. 

Making  Blue  Prints  and  Sepia  Prints. — Print 
making  on  Ferro-Prussiate  (blue  print)  paper  is 
simple  in  the  extreme,  no  chemicals  whatever  be- 
ing required.  Make  prints  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  for  making  gelatine  prints,  but  con- 
tinue until  a  shade  darker  than  the  finished  print 
should  be,  then  wash  the  print  for  ten  minutes 
in  clean  water.  The  resulting  picture  is  of  a  very 
agreeable,  bright  blue  color  on  a  white  ground 
and  is  as  permanent  as  the  paper  itself. 

Blue  prints  should  not  be  burnished. 

The  paper  known  under  various  names  as  Sepia 
matt  is  handled  almost  in  exactly  similar  man- 
ner as  the  blue  print  paper  and  produces  most 
beautiful  matt  surface  prints  of  a  warm  sepia 
brown  tone. 

Mounting. — After  the  prints  are  washed  they 
are  ready  for  mounting  on  cardboard,  or,  as  usu- 


141 


ally  called,  card-mounts;  this  operation  is  very 
simple. 

Remove  the  prints  from  the  water  one  by  one, 
drain  off  all  surplus  water,  and  place  in  a  pile, 
with  faces  down,  on  a  clean  sheet  of  glass. 

Apply  a  thin  coat  of  paste  to  the  back  of 
upper  print,  using  a  bristle  brush  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  place  the  print  carefully  on  the  card-mount, 
working  from  the  center  to  the  ends  so  as  to  be 
free  from  air  bubbles.  Place  a  piece  of  cheese 
cloth  over  the  print  to  prevent  it  from  becom- 
ing rubbed  or  torn,  and  rub  the  paper  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand  until  the  print  lies  perfectly 
smooth. 

If  the  prints  are  not  required  to  be  mounted 
at  once  on  leaving  the  water,  they  should  be 
dried,  and  when  mounted  subsequently  they 
should  be  thrown  into  clean  water  until  they 
lie  flat,  and  then  mount  as  usual.  Do  not  try 
to  mount  them  while  dry. 

One  of  the  best  articles  for  making  prints  lie 
smooth  is  a  small  squeegee  roller,  which  is  sold 
by  all  dealers  in  photographic  materials. 

After  being  properly  mounted  and  thoroughly 
dried  the  prints  should  be  burnished  by  running 
them  through  a  Burnisher. 

Glossy  Prints. — Few  amateurs  care  to  go  to 
the  expense  or  trouble  of  burnishing  their  own 
prints,  but  they  can  readily  obtain  a  beautiful 
glace  finish  in  a  simple  manner  by  drying  prints 
on  a  ferrotype  plate  in  the  following  manner : 

I.  Clean  the  ferrotype  plate  with  hot  water 
each  time  it  is  used.  Polish  with  a  soft  cloth 
until  plate  is  absolutely  free  from  dirt  or  specks 
of  any  description.  Swab  with  a  tuft  of  soft 
cloth  or  cotton  batting,  wet  with  a  solution  com- 
posed of  benzine  i  oz.,  paraffine  lo  gr.    Rub  dry 


142 


with  a  clean  cloth  and  polish  with  a  chamois 
skin  or  very  soft  cloth.  Use  a  soft  brush  to  re- 
move particles  of  dust  from  plate. 

2.  Lay  the  wet  print  on  the  ferrotype  plate.  It 
must  be  in  perfect  contact  to  produce  a  uniform 
glossy  surface.  This  contact  is  better  secured 
by  avoiding  air  bells  in  laying  the  print  down 
than  by  endeavoring  to  expel  them  by  heavy 
pressure — -light  rolling  with  a  print  roller  (with 
cloth  between)  is  all  that  is  required — heavy 
pressure  being  liable  to  make  prints  stick  in 
spots. 

3.  When  surface  is  dry  brush  over  the  back 
of  print  (while  still  on  the  plate)  with  a  thin 
solution  of  white  glue. 

4.  When  ''bone"  dry  strip  the  print  from  the 
plate  and  lay  the  print  on  a  mount,  the  face  of 
which  has  been  well  moistened  with  a  wet  sponge. 

5.  Rub  down  with  a  dry  blotter,  then  dry  face 
up,  free  from  dust. 

Note.— Prints  finished  by  the  above  process  can 
be  kept  very  nicely  unmounted  if  so  desired,  the 
glue  on  the  backs  preventing  curling. 


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Wonderful  Trick 
Cards. 

SURPRISING!  ASTOUNDINGI 

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1.  A  card  may  be  drawd,  shuflaed  in  the 
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